Corneal Topography: The Visionary Terrain of the Eye
Overview
Corneal topography is a sophisticated diagnostic tool that plays a crucial role in the field of ophthalmology. This non-invasive imaging technique provides a detailed map of the cornea's surface, allowing eye care professionals to assess its shape, curvature, and overall health. In this article by Academic Block, we will explore the principles, applications, and significance of corneal topography, exploring how it aids in the diagnosis and management of various ocular conditions.
The Anatomy of the Cornea
Before look into corneal topography, it is essential to understand the basic anatomy of the cornea. The cornea is the transparent, dome-shaped front surface of the eye, covering the iris and the pupil. Comprising several layers, including the epithelium, Bowman's layer, stroma, Descemet's membrane, and the endothelium, the cornea plays a pivotal role in refracting light and focusing it onto the retina.
Principles of Corneal Topography
Corneal topography relies on the principles of photokeratoscopy and computerized image analysis to create a detailed map of the cornea's surface. Photokeratoscopy involves projecting a series of illuminated rings onto the cornea and capturing the reflected image. The distortion of these rings on the corneal surface is then analyzed to determine the curvature and shape of the cornea.
Modern corneal topography systems use advanced computer algorithms to process the captured data and generate detailed color-coded maps. These maps provide information about corneal power, astigmatism, and irregularities, offering a comprehensive assessment of the cornea's topography.
Applications of Corneal Topography
Refractive Surgery Planning
Corneal topography plays a pivotal role in refractive surgery, such as laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) and photorefractive keratectomy (PRK). By providing detailed information about the cornea's shape and curvature, surgeons can customize the surgical approach to achieve optimal visual outcomes. This precise planning helps in correcting myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism effectively.
Contact Lens Fitting
Corneal topography aids in contact lens fitting by providing insights into the cornea's shape, size, and irregularities. This information is crucial for selecting the appropriate type and design of contact lenses, ensuring a comfortable fit and optimal visual acuity. Contact lens practitioners can use corneal topography to identify any abnormalities that may impact the fitting process.
Keratoconus Diagnosis and Management
Keratoconus is a progressive corneal disorder characterized by the thinning and bulging of the cornea, leading to visual distortions. Corneal topography is an invaluable tool for diagnosing keratoconus in its early stages. The detailed maps generated by corneal topography reveal irregularities in the corneal surface, helping clinicians monitor the progression of the condition and plan appropriate interventions.
Postoperative Monitoring
After corneal surgeries, such as cataract extraction or corneal transplant, monitoring the corneal topography is essential for assessing the healing process and detecting any postoperative complications. Changes in corneal shape or irregularities can be indicative of issues that may require intervention.
Interpretation of Corneal Topography Maps
Understanding corneal topography maps is crucial for eye care professionals to make informed decisions about patient care. The key parameters evaluated in corneal topography maps include:
1. Corneal Power:
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Central corneal power provides information about the cornea's refractive power at its center.
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Peripheral corneal power assesses the refractive power in the outer areas of the cornea.
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Elevation Maps: Anterior and posterior elevation maps display deviations from the normal corneal shape, helping identify irregularities or abnormalities.
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Astigmatism Analysis: Astigmatism maps reveal the distribution and magnitude of astigmatism across the cornea, aiding in precise correction.
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Pachymetry Maps: Pachymetry maps display corneal thickness, helping identify areas of thinning or thickening, which can be critical in conditions like keratoconus.
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Indices and Metrics: Several indices, such as the Keratoconus Severity Index (KSI) or the Surface Regularity Index (SRI), provide quantitative measures of corneal health and shape.
Technological Advances in Corneal Topography
Over the years, corneal topography technology has evolved significantly, incorporating advancements to enhance precision and efficiency. Some notable technological features include:
Placido Disc Systems:
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Traditional systems utilize a Placido disc with illuminated rings for corneal imaging.
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Scheimpflug Imaging:
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Scheimpflug imaging captures images using a rotating camera, allowing for three-dimensional reconstruction of the cornea.
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Tear Film Assessment:
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Some modern systems incorporate tear film assessment, providing insights into the impact of tear quality on corneal topography.
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Integration with Artificial Intelligence:
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The integration of artificial intelligence algorithms enhances the accuracy of corneal topography interpretation and aids in early disease detection.
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Mathematical equations behind the Corneal Topography
Corneal topography involves mathematical analyses to interpret the shape and curvature of the cornea's surface. Several mathematical equations and algorithms are used to process the data obtained from corneal topography systems. Here are some key mathematical aspects involved in corneal topography:
Placido Disc Reflection:
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- Traditional corneal topography systems, which use a Placido disc, rely on the reflection of concentric rings or patterns from the corneal surface. The distortion of these patterns provides information about the curvature of the cornea.
- Equation: The mathematical analysis involves computing the distortion in the reflected rings, often employing Fourier analysis or other mathematical transformations.
Sagittal Height Data:
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- The cornea's shape can be described using sagittal height data, representing the height of the cornea at various points. This data is often used to generate elevation maps.
- Equation: The sagittal height (Z) at a given point (x, y) on the cornea's surface can be expressed mathematically, often using a two-dimensional function like Z = f(x, y).
Zernike Polynomials:
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- Zernike polynomials are a set of orthogonal mathematical functions used to describe aberrations in optical systems, including the cornea. They are employed in corneal topography to represent irregularities.
- Equation: The Zernike polynomials are expressed as a sum of terms, each representing a specific aberration. The formula for a Zernike polynomial can be complex, involving radial and azimuthal components.
Curvature and Power Calculations:
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- Corneal curvature and power calculations are fundamental to corneal topography, especially in the context of refractive surgery planning.
- Equation: The curvature (k) at a point on the cornea can be calculated using the formula k = 1 / R, where R is the radius of curvature. The corneal power is related to the curvature and is often expressed in diopters (D).
Pachymetry:
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- Corneal pachymetry involves measuring the thickness of the cornea. This is crucial for conditions like keratoconus.
- Equation: The calculation of corneal thickness involves measuring the distance between the anterior and posterior corneal surfaces at a given point.
Corneal Wavefront Analysis:
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- Wavefront analysis assesses how light travels through the cornea, providing insights into optical aberrations.
- Equation: The wavefront aberration is often expressed as a mathematical sum of Zernike polynomials, representing different aberrations present in the optical system.
Corneal Indices:
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- Various indices are calculated to quantify corneal shape and health. For example, the Keratoconus Severity Index (KSI) may involve a combination of mathematical parameters.
- Equation: Indices are derived using specific mathematical formulas based on the parameters measured by corneal topography.
It's important to note that the specific equations and algorithms used can vary among different corneal topography systems and manufacturers.
Limitations and Challenges
While corneal topography is a powerful diagnostic tool, it is essential to recognize its limitations and challenges. Factors such as tear film quality, patient cooperation, and certain corneal pathologies can affect the accuracy of the results. Additionally, interpreting corneal topography maps requires expertise, and misinterpretation can lead to incorrect diagnoses and treatment decisions.
Final Words
In this article by Academic Block, we have seen that, Corneal topography has revolutionized the field of ophthalmology by providing a detailed and objective assessment of the cornea's surface. From refractive surgery planning to the diagnosis and management of corneal conditions, this technology has become an indispensable tool for eye care professionals. As technology continues to advance, the future holds the promise of even more sophisticated corneal topography systems, further improving our ability to understand, diagnose, and treat a wide range of ocular conditions. In the ever-evolving landscape of eye care, corneal topography stands as a testament to the remarkable intersection of medicine and technology. Please provide your comments below, it will help us in improving this article. Thanks for reading!
This Article will answer your questions like:
Corneal topography is a non-invasive imaging technique that maps the surface curvature of the cornea, providing detailed information about its shape and structure. It is crucial in diagnosing and managing various eye conditions such as astigmatism, keratoconus, and irregular corneal shapes. By accurately measuring the corneal curvature and irregularities, corneal topography helps in planning refractive surgeries, fitting contact lenses, and monitoring the progression of corneal diseases. This technology is essential for ensuring optimal visual outcomes in clinical practice and plays a vital role in enhancing the accuracy of diagnostic assessments and treatment strategies related to corneal health.
Corneal topography is typically measured using either Placido disc or Scheimpflug imaging techniques. Placido disc systems project rings of light onto the cornea, and the reflected pattern is captured and analyzed to create a 3D map of the corneal surface curvature. Scheimpflug imaging uses a rotating camera to capture multiple images of the cornea, allowing for precise measurement of its anterior and posterior surfaces. These measurements are then processed using specialized software to generate detailed topographic maps that display curvature, elevation, and irregularities across the entire corneal surface.
Key parameters measured in corneal topography include keratometry readings (K-readings), which indicate the curvature and power of the cornea; corneal astigmatism, which identifies irregularities in the corneal shape; corneal eccentricity, which assesses the symmetry of the cornea; and corneal thickness mapping, which provides information about the thickness profile across the corneal surface. These parameters help clinicians assess the health of the cornea, diagnose conditions such as astigmatism and keratoconus, and determine the suitability of patients for refractive procedures and contact lens fitting.
A corneal topography test is used to map the surface curvature of the cornea, the clear, outer part of the eye. This test creates a detailed, three-dimensional representation of the cornea’s shape, detecting irregularities or distortions that may affect vision. It is commonly used to diagnose corneal conditions such as keratoconus, monitor patients before and after refractive surgery (like LASIK), and to fit contact lenses. Corneal topography is essential for assessing the integrity and curvature of the cornea to ensure accurate vision correction and treatment plans.
Corneal topography in keratoconus is crucial for diagnosing and managing this progressive eye condition, where the cornea thins and bulges into a cone shape. The test maps the corneal surface, highlighting irregularities in curvature that are characteristic of keratoconus. By detecting early signs of keratoconus, corneal topography helps guide treatment options like custom contact lenses, corneal cross-linking, or surgery. It also monitors disease progression and the effectiveness of interventions, ensuring proper management of the patient’s condition to prevent significant vision loss.
A topography eye test is a non-invasive imaging technique that provides a detailed map of the cornea’s surface curvature. The test is used to evaluate the cornea’s shape, detect abnormalities, and assist in diagnosing conditions like astigmatism, keratoconus, and corneal scarring. It plays a key role in planning corrective procedures like LASIK surgery and fitting contact lenses. By creating a three-dimensional model of the cornea, the topography eye test helps doctors assess the structural integrity of the cornea and make informed decisions about vision correction.
Corneal topography systems utilize advanced optical technologies such as Placido disc and Scheimpflug imaging. Placido disc technology projects concentric rings of light onto the cornea, and the reflected pattern is analyzed to create a topographic map. Scheimpflug imaging employs a rotating camera that captures images of the anterior segment of the eye from multiple angles, allowing for precise measurement of corneal curvature and elevation. Both technologies rely on sophisticated software algorithms to process captured data and generate detailed 3D maps of the corneal surface, which are essential for diagnosing and managing various eye conditions.
Corneal topography plays a crucial role in diagnosing astigmatism and corneal irregularities by providing detailed measurements of corneal curvature and shape. It accurately quantifies the degree and axis of astigmatism, identifies irregularities such as corneal steepening or irregular astigmatism associated with conditions like keratoconus. By mapping the corneal surface with high precision, corneal topography enables clinicians to visualize and analyze abnormalities that affect visual acuity and overall eye health, guiding treatment decisions such as corrective lenses, refractive surgeries, or therapeutic interventions tailored to each patient's unique corneal profile.
Placido disc and Scheimpflug imaging are two primary techniques used in corneal topography with distinct methods of capturing and analyzing corneal data. Placido disc systems project a series of concentric rings onto the cornea, and the reflected pattern is recorded by a camera. By analyzing the distortion of these rings, Placido disc systems create a curvature map of the cornea's anterior surface.
In contrast, Scheimpflug imaging utilizes a rotating camera to capture multiple cross-sectional images of the cornea and anterior eye structures. This technique provides detailed information about both the anterior and posterior surfaces of the cornea, enabling precise measurement of corneal thickness, curvature, and elevation.
While Placido disc imaging is faster and more commonly used for routine corneal assessments, Scheimpflug imaging offers superior accuracy in measuring corneal irregularities and calculating precise biometric parameters essential for surgical planning and comprehensive diagnostic evaluations.
Corneal topography is indispensable in planning refractive surgeries such as LASIK (laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis) and PRK (photorefractive keratectomy). By providing precise measurements of corneal curvature, thickness, and irregularities, topography maps help surgeons determine the optimal treatment parameters, including the amount and location of tissue to be ablated.
These maps also assist in identifying candidates suitable for refractive procedures by evaluating corneal stability, identifying irregular astigmatism or keratoconus that could affect surgical outcomes, and predicting the postoperative corneal shape. Corneal topography ensures personalized treatment planning, enhances surgical accuracy, and improves visual outcomes by tailoring procedures to the individual's unique corneal characteristics.
Corneal topography is extensively used in clinical practice for diagnosing and managing a wide range of eye conditions and refractive errors. It is crucial in evaluating corneal shape and curvature, diagnosing astigmatism, keratoconus, and other corneal irregularities. Topography maps guide the fitting of contact lenses by matching lens parameters to the patient's corneal profile, ensuring comfort and visual acuity.
In refractive surgery, corneal topography aids in surgical planning, patient selection, and postoperative monitoring, optimizing outcomes and reducing complications. Additionally, topography assists in monitoring corneal diseases such as keratitis, dystrophies, and degenerations, providing valuable insights into disease progression and treatment efficacy.
Corneal topography plays a crucial role in fitting contact lenses by providing detailed measurements of corneal curvature, shape, and irregularities. These measurements help clinicians select the most appropriate lens type, size, and curvature that closely match the patient's corneal profile.
By ensuring a proper fit, corneal topography enhances the comfort, visual clarity, and overall satisfaction of contact lens wearers. It also aids in diagnosing and managing complications such as lens decentration, poor fitting, and corneal abrasions caused by improper lens parameters. With advances in topography technology, including software tools for precise lens fitting and customization, clinicians can optimize contact lens prescriptions and improve patient outcomes in both routine and challenging cases.
Corneal topography has limitations related to its ability to accurately measure certain types of irregular astigmatism, particularly in cases of severe corneal scarring or opacities that obscure the reflective patterns used in Placido disc imaging.
Interpretation of topography maps requires specialized training and expertise to differentiate normal variations from pathological conditions accurately. Furthermore, factors such as patient cooperation, tear film quality, and proper alignment during imaging can affect the accuracy and reproducibility of measurements.
Challenges also include the cost and availability of advanced topography systems, especially in resource-limited settings, and the continuous need for updates and calibration to maintain accuracy and reliability in clinical practice.
Corneal topography is invaluable in monitoring the progression of corneal diseases and conditions by providing quantitative data on corneal shape, curvature, and thickness changes over time.
It aids in detecting early signs of diseases such as keratoconus, corneal dystrophies, and postoperative corneal changes following refractive surgeries. Regular topography assessments enable clinicians to track disease progression, evaluate treatment effectiveness, and make informed decisions about disease management strategies.
By comparing sequential topography maps, clinicians can detect subtle changes in corneal morphology that may indicate worsening of conditions or complications, facilitating timely interventions and improving patient outcomes in ophthalmic practice.
Recent advancements in corneal topography technology have focused on enhancing accuracy, speed, and diagnostic capabilities. Modern systems incorporate advanced software algorithms for more detailed analysis and interpretation of topography maps, improving the detection and characterization of subtle corneal irregularities.
Integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning algorithms enables automated pattern recognition and classification of corneal conditions, facilitating faster diagnosis and personalized treatment planning. Enhanced imaging modalities, such as swept-source OCT (optical coherence tomography) combined with topography, provide comprehensive corneal assessments with superior depth resolution and accuracy.
Furthermore, developments in portable and handheld topography devices expand access to corneal evaluations in diverse clinical settings, offering convenience and efficiency in routine examinations and emergency care scenarios.
Hardware and software required for Corneal Topography
Hardware:
- Corneal Topographer: The core hardware component is the corneal topographer itself, which projects specific patterns onto the cornea, captures reflections, and generates detailed maps of the corneal surface.
- Placido Disc or Projection System: Many corneal topographers use a Placido disc or other projection systems to project rings or patterns onto the cornea. The reflection of these patterns is then analyzed to determine the corneal shape.
- Camera or Imaging System: A high-resolution camera or imaging system captures the reflected patterns from the cornea. The quality of the camera is crucial for obtaining accurate and detailed corneal images.
- Alignment System: Some corneal topographers include an alignment system to ensure proper positioning and fixation of the patient’s eye during imaging, enhancing the accuracy of the measurements.
- Chinrest and Headrest: These components provide stability and proper alignment for the patient during the imaging process.
- Software Integration: The hardware components are integrated into software that processes the captured data, generates corneal maps, and provides various indices and metrics for analysis.
Software:
- Corneal Mapping Software: This software is the core of the corneal topography system. It processes the reflected images, performs mathematical analyses, and generates detailed color-coded maps of the cornea.
- Analysis and Interpretation Tools: Software includes tools for interpreting corneal maps, such as elevation maps, curvature maps, and pachymetry maps. Analysis tools often include comparisons to normative databases and the ability to detect irregularities.
- Zernike Polynomial Analysis: Some systems utilize Zernike polynomial analysis to describe and quantify aberrations in the cornea. Software algorithms decompose the corneal shape into Zernike coefficients.
- Connectivity and Data Management: Software enables connectivity to electronic health record (EHR) systems and databases for seamless integration of corneal topography data into patient records. It may also allow for data export and sharing.
- User Interface: A user-friendly interface is essential for clinicians to operate the corneal topography system efficiently. This includes controls for acquiring images, adjusting settings, and interpreting results.
- Updates and Maintenance Tools: Software should have provisions for updates and maintenance to ensure that the system stays current with advancements and improvements.
Discoveries where Corneal Topography is used
Early Detection of Keratoconus: Corneal topography has significantly improved the early detection of keratoconus, a progressive corneal disorder. By providing detailed maps of the corneal surface, corneal topography aids in identifying subtle changes indicative of keratoconus at its earliest stages.
Customized Refractive Surgery Planning: The application of corneal topography in refractive surgery, such as LASIK and PRK, has allowed for personalized and customized treatment plans. This has led to improved surgical outcomes, reduced side effects, and enhanced patient satisfaction.
Understanding Corneal Astigmatism: Corneal topography has been instrumental in the study and understanding of corneal astigmatism. Researchers and clinicians use corneal topography to map and quantify astigmatism, guiding treatment decisions and improving the accuracy of astigmatism correction.
Assessment of Contact Lens Fit: Corneal topography is widely used in fitting contact lenses. By providing detailed information about the cornea’s shape and curvature, it helps practitioners select the most appropriate type and design of contact lenses for optimal comfort and vision correction.
Monitoring Corneal Changes Post-Surgery: After corneal surgeries, such as cataract extraction or corneal transplantation, corneal topography is employed to monitor changes in corneal shape and thickness. This helps in assessing the success of the surgery and identifying any postoperative complications.
Study of Corneal Biomechanics: Corneal topography has contributed to the study of corneal biomechanics, providing insights into the mechanical properties of the cornea. This understanding is crucial for the development of treatments and interventions related to corneal diseases and conditions.
Investigation of Corneal Aberrations: The analysis of corneal aberrations using corneal topography has led to a deeper understanding of the factors influencing visual quality. Researchers use this information to explore ways to minimize aberrations and improve overall visual outcomes.
Identification of Ectatic Disorders Beyond Keratoconus: Corneal topography has expanded its role in identifying various ectatic disorders beyond keratoconus, including pellucid marginal degeneration. The technology allows for the differentiation of these conditions and informs appropriate management strategies.
Correlation with Dry Eye Syndrome:Recent studies have explored the use of corneal topography in assessing and correlating changes in corneal shape with dry eye syndrome. This interdisciplinary approach helps in understanding the impact of dry eye on corneal health.
Integration with Artificial Intelligence for Diagnostics: The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) with corneal topography data has shown promise in enhancing diagnostic capabilities. AI algorithms analyze corneal maps, aiding in the early detection of pathologies and providing valuable insights for clinicians.
Facts on Corneal Topography
Objective Measurement: Corneal topography provides objective measurements of the corneal surface, offering detailed and accurate information about its shape, curvature, and thickness.
Non-Invasive Imaging: The procedure is non-invasive and painless, involving the projection of illuminated patterns onto the cornea and capturing the reflected images.
Used in Refractive Surgery: Corneal topography is extensively used in planning refractive surgeries such as LASIK and PRK. It aids in customizing treatments based on the individual’s corneal characteristics.
Contact Lens Fitting: It plays a crucial role in contact lens fitting by providing information about the corneal shape, helping practitioners choose the most suitable type and design of contact lenses.
Early Detection of Keratoconus: One of its primary applications is the early detection of keratoconus, a progressive corneal disorder. Corneal topography maps can reveal irregularities associated with keratoconus in its early stages.
Astigmatism Analysis: Corneal topography assists in the analysis and quantification of astigmatism, helping clinicians plan precise interventions for astigmatism correction.
Correlation with Visual Quality: The technology allows for the assessment of corneal aberrations, providing insights into factors affecting visual quality. This information is valuable for improving outcomes in vision correction procedures.
Postoperative Monitoring: After corneal surgeries, corneal topography is used to monitor the healing process and detect any postoperative complications or changes in corneal shape.
Corneal Biomechanics: Corneal topography contributes to the study of corneal biomechanics, helping researchers understand the mechanical properties of the cornea.
Software-Driven Analysis: The data obtained from corneal topography is processed by sophisticated software, providing clinicians with color-coded maps and various indices for detailed analysis.
Customized Treatment Plans: The information from corneal topography allows for the creation of customized treatment plans, tailoring interventions to individual corneal characteristics for optimal outcomes.
Ectatic Disorders Beyond Keratoconus: Corneal topography has expanded its role in identifying various ectatic disorders beyond keratoconus, contributing to a broader understanding of corneal pathologies.
Integration with Artificial Intelligence: Artificial intelligence algorithms are increasingly integrated with corneal topography data, enhancing diagnostic capabilities and aiding in early disease detection.
Dry Eye Assessment: Recent studies have explored the use of corneal topography in assessing and correlating changes in corneal shape with dry eye syndrome, providing valuable insights for comprehensive eye care.
Academic References on Corneal Topography
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- Bühren, J., Kook, D., Yoon, G., Kohnen, T. (2014). “Detection of subclinical keratoconus by using corneal anterior and posterior surface aberrations and thickness spatial profiles.” Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 55(1), 4076-4086.
- Dubbelman, M., Sicam, V. A., Van der Heijde, G. L. (2006). “The shape of the anterior and posterior surface of the aging human cornea.” Vision Research, 46(6-7), 993-1001.
- Rabinowitz, Y. S., Yang, H., Brickman, Y., Akkina, J. (1998). “Videokeratography database of normal human corneas.” The British Journal of Ophthalmology, 82(7), 610-616.
- Smolek, M. K., Klyce, S. D. (1997). “Current keratoconus detection methods compared with a neural network approach.” Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 38(11), 2290-2299.
- Dumbleton, K. A., Chalmers, R. L., Richter, D., Fonn, D. (2002). “Changes in myopic refractive error after contact lens discontinuation.” Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 43(3), 774-779.
- Mello, G. R., Rocha, G., Rodrigues, E. B. (2015). “Biomechanical properties of the human cornea evaluated with a new Scheimpflug-based noncontact tonometer.” Arquivos Brasileiros de Oftalmologia, 78(6), 357-361.
- Dubbelman, M., Van der Heijde, G. L., Weeber, H. A. (2002). “Change in shape of the aging human crystalline lens with accommodation.” Vision Research, 42(10), 1179-1191.
- Gokul, A., Patel, D. V., McGhee, C. N. J. (2011). “Supplemental material: Live-3D magnetic resonance imaging of the human eye and orbit—Part 2 (rotational globe motion and intraocular pressure).” The British Journal of Ophthalmology.
- Ehlers, N., Hjortdal, J., Nielsen, K. (1985). “Corneal topography and accommodation.” Acta Ophthalmologica, 63(4), 487-492.
- Bland, J. M., & Altman, D. G. (1986). “Statistical methods for assessing agreement between two methods of clinical measurement.” The Lancet, 327(8476), 307-310.
- Maeda, N., Klyce, S. D., Smolek, M. K. (1994). “Comparison of methods for detecting keratoconus using videokeratography.” Archives of Ophthalmology, 112(4), 501-509.
- Thibos, L. N., Wheeler, W., Horner, D. (1997). “Power vectors: An application of Fourier analysis to the description and statistical analysis of refractive error.” Optometry and Vision Science, 74(6), 367-375.
- McAlinden, C. (2011). “Corneal aberrations and their role in the process of emmetropization.” Vision Research, 51(3), 215-223.