Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy: Visualizing Cell
Overview
Microscopy has been a cornerstone in the field of life sciences, allowing scientists to examine the intricate details of biological specimens. One powerful technique that has significantly contributed to this exploration is Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) microscopy. DIC microscopy provides enhanced contrast and three-dimensional imaging capabilities, making it a valuable tool for studying live cells and dynamic biological processes. In this article by Academic Block, we will explore the principles, components, applications, and advancements of Differential Interference Contrast microscopy.
Introduction to Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy
Differential Interference Contrast microscopy, often referred to as Nomarski Interference Contrast or Nomarski microscopy, was developed by Polish-American physicist Zbigniew Religa and French physicist Georges Nomarski in the 1950s. It is an optical microscopy technique that enhances the contrast of transparent and semi-transparent specimens without the need for staining or labeling. DIC microscopy provides detailed images of live cells, unstained specimens, and thin sections of tissues.
Principles of Differential Interference Contrast
DIC microscopy exploits the interference of light waves to create contrast in transparent specimens. The fundamental principle behind DIC is to split a beam of light into two separate paths, passing through the specimen and reference beams. These two beams undergo a small lateral shift, and their interference generates contrast in the final image.
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Polarized Light: DIC microscopy begins with the generation of polarized light. A polarizer is used to polarize the light source, typically a halogen lamp, ensuring that light waves vibrate in a specific direction.
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Beam Splitting: The polarized light is then split into two beams: the object (specimen) beam and the reference beam. This is achieved using a Wollaston prism, which divides the polarized light into two orthogonally polarized beams.
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Phase Retardation: The two beams pass through the specimen, where they encounter variations in refractive index. The difference in optical path length between these beams creates a phase difference, known as phase retardation.
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Recombination and Image Formation: After passing through the specimen, the two beams are recombined using another Wollaston prism. The interference between the two beams generates a series of bright and dark areas, revealing subtle details and providing contrast in the image.
Components of a Differential Interference Contrast Microscope
DIC microscopy involves a specialized set of optical components to achieve its unique imaging capabilities.
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Polarizer: Positioned at the light source, the polarizer ensures that the incoming light is polarized before entering the microscope.
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Wollaston Prism: This birefringent prism splits the polarized light into two orthogonally polarized beams, creating the object and reference beams.
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Objective Lens: The objective lens is responsible for focusing the split beams onto the specimen, and then collecting and converging the transmitted light.
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Specimen: The biological specimen, which can be living cells, tissues, or other transparent samples, interacts with the split beams to introduce phase differences.
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Retardation Plate: Placed in the optical path, the retardation plate ensures that the two beams have the appropriate phase difference, allowing for interference.
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Analyzer: Positioned above the objective lens, the analyzer helps in further refining the contrast by selectively blocking certain wavelengths of light.
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Camera: A camera is used to capture the interference pattern, converting it into a detailed image for analysis and documentation.
Advantages of Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy
DIC microscopy offers several advantages that contribute to its popularity in biological research:
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Label-Free Imaging: Unlike fluorescence microscopy, DIC does not require the use of stains or fluorescent dyes. This is particularly advantageous for studying live cells and preserving their natural state.
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Enhanced Contrast: DIC enhances contrast by highlighting variations in optical path length within the specimen. This makes it ideal for imaging transparent or low-contrast samples.
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Three-Dimensional Visualization: DIC provides three-dimensional information, allowing researchers to observe the topography and relief of specimens. This is especially valuable for understanding the structure and dynamics of cellular components.
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Live Cell Imaging: The non-invasive nature of DIC microscopy makes it suitable for observing live cells in real-time. Researchers can track cellular processes without affecting the viability of the specimen.
Applications of Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy
DIC microscopy finds extensive applications in various fields of biological research, owing to its ability to provide detailed and high-contrast images. Some key applications include:
Cell Biology
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Cell Morphology: DIC microscopy allows researchers to study the morphology of cells in detail, including cell shape, size, and internal structures.
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Cell Motility: The technique is widely used to investigate cellular processes such as cell migration, cytoplasmic streaming, and other dynamic movements within living cells.
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Mitosis and Meiosis: DIC microscopy facilitates the observation of cell division processes, providing insights into mitosis and meiosis.
Neuroscience
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Neuronal Imaging: DIC microscopy is employed to study the intricate structures of neurons, including dendrites, axons, and synaptic connections.
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Live Imaging of Brain Tissue: Researchers use DIC microscopy to observe live brain tissue, enabling the study of neural activity and interactions.
Microorganisms and Microbial Communities
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Bacterial Morphology: DIC microscopy is valuable for studying the morphology and motility of bacteria, aiding in the identification of different bacterial species.
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Biofilm Imaging: Biofilms, composed of microorganisms, can be visualized in detail using DIC microscopy, contributing to the understanding of microbial community dynamics.
Embryology and Developmental Biology
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Embryo Development: DIC microscopy allows for the non-destructive imaging of developing embryos, providing insights into embryonic development and organogenesis.
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Cell Differentiation: Researchers use DIC microscopy to track cell differentiation processes during embryonic development.
Biomedical Research
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Tissue Imaging: DIC microscopy is applied to visualize thin sections of tissues, aiding in the study of tissue structure and pathology.
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Cancer Cell Studies: Researchers utilize DIC microscopy to examine cancer cells, studying their morphology and behavior in real-time.
Recent Advancements in Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy
Over the years, DIC microscopy has undergone advancements to improve its capabilities and address certain limitations. Some notable developments include:
Quantitative Phase Imaging (QPI)
Researchers have integrated DIC microscopy with quantitative phase imaging techniques to measure the optical thickness of specimens more accurately. This provides quantitative information about cellular structures and dynamics.
Digital DIC Microscopy
Digital DIC microscopy involves the use of digital cameras and advanced image processing techniques. This allows for real-time processing of DIC images, enabling faster acquisition and improved visualization.
Enhanced Resolution Techniques
Incorporating techniques such as structured illumination and super-resolution microscopy with DIC has enabled researchers to achieve higher spatial resolution, pushing the limits of what can be observed at the cellular and subcellular levels.
Correlative Microscopy
Combining DIC microscopy with other imaging modalities, such as fluorescence microscopy or electron microscopy, allows researchers to obtain comprehensive information about a specimen. This approach provides both structural and functional insights.
Mathematical equations behind the Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy
Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) Microscopy involves the manipulation and interference of polarized light to create contrast in transparent specimens. The mathematics behind DIC microscopy can be complex, involving principles of optics and interference. Here, we will provide an overview of the key mathematical equations and concepts involved:
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Jones Calculus: DIC microscopy relies on Jones calculus, a mathematical formalism used to describe the polarization of light. In Jones calculus, the electric field of a polarized light wave is represented as a complex vector. The Jones matrix describes the transformation of the electric field vector as it passes through optical elements.
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Amplitude Modulation: The amplitude modulation (AM) introduced by DIC microscopy is a crucial aspect. AM is described by the equation:I = I0 + ΔI cos(2πδx/λ) ;where:
- I is the intensity of the light,
- I0 is the average intensity,
- ΔI is the modulation amplitude,
- δ is the phase difference between the two orthogonal polarized beams,
- x is the lateral position in the specimen,
- λ is the wavelength of light.
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Phase Difference and Optical Path Difference: The phase difference (δ) introduced by the specimen is related to the optical path difference (OPD) (Δd) by the equation:δ = 2π λ Δd ;Here, λis the wavelength of light. The phase difference is directly proportional to the optical path difference, which is influenced by variations in refractive index within the specimen.
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Optical Transfer Function (OTF): The optical transfer function describes the imaging performance of an optical system. For DIC microscopy, the OTF can be expressed mathematically, taking into account factors such as the numerical aperture (NA) of the objective lens and the shear distance introduced by the Wollaston prism. The OTF plays a crucial role in understanding the spatial frequency response and contrast transfer characteristics of the DIC microscope.
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Modulation Transfer Function (MTF): The modulation transfer function is another important parameter in characterizing the performance of an optical system. In DIC microscopy, the MTF describes how well the system can reproduce variations in intensity. It is influenced by factors such as the shear distance and the polarization optics.
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DIC Image Formation: The final DIC image is formed by the interference of the two orthogonally polarized beams. The intensity variations in the image result from the interaction of these beams with the specimen. The mathematical expression for the final image involves the convolution of the specimen structure with the point spread function of the microscope.
This equation illustrates how the interference pattern is created in DIC microscopy, resulting in variations in intensity that reveal details of the specimen.
It's important to note that the detailed mathematical analysis of DIC microscopy involves advanced optics and wave optics principles. The above equations provide a simplified overview of some key concepts involved in DIC microscopy.
Challenges and Limitations of DIC Microscopy
While DIC microscopy is a powerful imaging technique, it is not without its challenges and limitations:
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Sensitivity to Optical Path Differences: DIC is highly sensitive to variations in optical path length, which can limit its applicability to thick or highly scattering specimens.
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Depth of Field: The depth of field in DIC microscopy is relatively shallow, making it challenging to capture detailed images of three-dimensional structures.
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Complexity of Setup: The optical setup for DIC microscopy can be intricate, requiring precise alignment of components. This complexity can hinder routine use and necessitate expertise in microscopy techniques.
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Cost: High-quality DIC microscopy systems can be expensive, limiting accessibility for some research laboratories.
Final Words
Differential Interference Contrast microscopy stands as a cornerstone in the realm of optical imaging, offering a unique and valuable approach to visualize transparent and unstained specimens. In this article by Academic Block we have seen that, from its humble beginnings to the recent advancements, DIC microscopy has evolved into a versatile tool with applications spanning various disciplines within the life sciences. As technology continues to advance, it is likely that DIC microscopy will play an increasingly crucial role in unraveling the mysteries of cellular and subcellular structures, providing researchers with unprecedented insights into the dynamic world of living organisms. Please provide your comments below, it will help us in improving this article. Thanks for reading!
This Article will answer your questions like:
Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) microscopy is an optical imaging technique used to enhance the contrast in unstained, transparent specimens. It utilizes differences in refractive index within the specimen to create detailed images with a three-dimensional appearance. DIC microscopy is widely used in biological and materials science research for its ability to reveal fine structural details and enhance visibility of transparent objects.
DIC microscopy works by splitting a polarized light beam into two beams that pass through the specimen. These beams travel along slightly different paths and interact differently with variations in the specimen's refractive index. A DIC microscope uses specialized prisms to recombine the beams, creating interference patterns that enhance contrast. This technique produces detailed images with shading that highlights subtle variations in specimen thickness and refractive index.
Key components of a DIC microscope include a polarizer, Nomarski prisms (or Wollaston prisms), a condenser with a Nomarski prism, and objectives with DIC optics. The polarizer polarizes the light passing through the specimen. Nomarski prisms split the polarized light into two orthogonal beams, which travel through the specimen and are then recombined by the analyzer prism. This recombination creates interference patterns that form the DIC image.
DIC microscopy is well-suited for imaging transparent specimens with subtle variations in refractive index, such as living cells, tissues, embryos, and thin sections of biological samples. It enhances contrast in these specimens without the need for staining, providing detailed images of internal structures and fine surface morphology.
DIC microscopy differs from phase contrast microscopy in several ways. Phase contrast microscopy enhances contrast by altering the phase of light passing through the specimen, whereas DIC microscopy utilizes interference patterns created by differences in refractive index. DIC microscopy provides higher resolution and better 3D visualization of specimen structures compared to phase contrast microscopy, making it suitable for detailed imaging of transparent and unstained biological specimens.
DIC microscopy offers several advantages, including enhanced contrast and resolution for transparent specimens, detailed visualization of cellular and subcellular structures without staining, and the ability to observe living cells and dynamic processes in real-time. It provides a three-dimensional view of specimen morphology and internal structures, aiding in biological research and medical diagnostics.
Limitations of DIC microscopy include sensitivity to specimen thickness variations, which can affect image quality. The technique may produce artifacts in dense or highly refractive specimens. Additionally, DIC microscopy requires specialized optics and precise alignment, making it more complex than some other microscopy techniques. Interpretation of DIC images requires experience to distinguish between true structures and artifacts.
DIC microscopy enhances the visualization of transparent specimens by exploiting differences in refractive index within the specimen. It creates contrast through interference patterns generated by the interaction of polarized light beams that pass through the specimen. This technique provides detailed images with shading that highlights subtle variations in specimen thickness and refractive index, revealing internal structures and surface features that may be difficult to observe with other microscopy methods.
Nomarski prisms (or Wollaston prisms) in DIC microscopy split polarized light into two beams with orthogonal polarization states. These beams pass through the specimen and interact differently with variations in refractive index. The prisms recombine the beams, creating interference patterns that enhance contrast and reveal fine details in transparent specimens. Nomarski prisms are essential components that enable DIC microscopy to produce high-resolution, three-dimensional images with enhanced visualization of specimen structures.
Image contrast in DIC microscopy is generated by interference patterns created when polarized light beams, split by Nomarski prisms, recombine after passing through the specimen. These interference patterns are sensitive to variations in refractive index within the specimen, producing light and dark regions that enhance contrast. DIC microscopy provides a pseudo-3D effect with shading that highlights structural details, making it valuable for imaging transparent specimens in biological and materials science research.
DIC microscopy is commonly used in biological research for imaging living cells, observing cellular dynamics, and studying biological processes such as mitosis and cell motility. It allows researchers to visualize fine details of cellular structures, organelles, and membrane morphology without the need for staining. DIC microscopy is also valuable for studying developmental biology, neurobiology, and microbiology, where real-time imaging of transparent specimens is essential for understanding physiological and pathological processes.
DIC microscopy can be combined with fluorescence microscopy techniques to simultaneously visualize structural details and specific molecules within cells or tissues. This combination allows researchers to correlate cellular morphology observed in DIC images with the localization of fluorescently labeled proteins or genetic markers. Such correlative microscopy approaches provide comprehensive insights into cellular function and dynamics, bridging the gap between structural and molecular biology.
Hardware and software required for Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy
Microscopy:
- Microscope: DIC microscopy requires a specialized microscope equipped with the necessary optical components. This includes a DIC prism, polarizers, and Nomarski optics. DIC objectives are designed to work optimally with DIC microscopy.
- Light Source: A suitable light source is essential for providing polarized light. Halogen lamps are commonly used in DIC microscopy setups, and they can be equipped with appropriate filters to ensure proper polarization.
- Polarizers: Polarizers are crucial components in DIC microscopy. A polarizer at the light source and an analyzer above the objective lens help in controlling the polarization of light.
- Wollaston Prism: The Wollaston prism is a key component that splits the polarized light into two orthogonally polarized beams, creating the DIC effect.
- Objective Lens: Special DIC-compatible objective lenses are required for focusing the split beams onto the specimen and collecting the transmitted light. These objectives are designed to work optimally with DIC microscopy.
- Retardation Plate: A retardation plate is used to introduce a controlled phase shift between the two beams, enabling interference and contrast enhancement.
- Camera: A camera is needed to capture the DIC images. High-resolution cameras with good sensitivity to low light levels are commonly used for DIC microscopy.
- Image Capture System: An image capture system is required to interface with the camera and store the DIC images. This could be a dedicated microscope camera system or a digital camera connected to a computer.
- Stage and Focus Mechanism: Precision stages and focus mechanisms are essential for manipulating and focusing on the specimen. These allow for precise positioning and imaging of different areas of interest.
- DIC Prism Slider: Some microscopes may have a motorized DIC prism slider, allowing for easy switching between DIC and other imaging modalities.
- Incident Light Illumination System: For transparent samples, an incident light illumination system may be necessary to illuminate the specimen from below. This is particularly useful for observing details in thicker specimens.
Software for DIC Microscopy:
- Microscope Control Software: The microscope may come with dedicated control software that allows users to adjust various parameters, such as focus, illumination intensity, and DIC settings.
- Image Acquisition Software: Software is required to capture and save DIC images. This may be proprietary software provided by the microscope manufacturer or third-party image acquisition software compatible with the microscope camera.
- Image Analysis Software: Dedicated image analysis software is often used for processing and analyzing DIC images. This software may include tools for contrast enhancement, image segmentation, and quantitative analysis of structures within the specimen.
- Data Storage and Management Software: Software for organizing and managing the large amount of data generated during DIC microscopy experiments is important. This may involve file organization, annotation, and database management.
- 3D Reconstruction Software: For DIC microscopy applications requiring three-dimensional information, specialized software for 3D reconstruction may be employed. This type of software allows for the visualization and analysis of structures in three dimensions.
- Post-Processing Tools: Post-processing tools, including image editing software, can be useful for refining DIC images, adjusting contrast, and preparing figures for publication.
Key figures in Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy
The development of Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) Microscopy is credited to Georges Nomarski, a French physicist. Georges Nomarski, along with Zbigniew Religa, a Polish-American physicist, introduced DIC microscopy in the 1950s. While both scientists contributed to its development, Nomarski is often recognized as the key figure and is sometimes referred to as the “father” of Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy. The technique, also known as Nomarski Interference Contrast, has since become a widely used and valuable tool in biological research for its ability to provide enhanced contrast and detailed imaging of transparent specimens.
Facts on Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy
Inventors: Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) Microscopy was developed by Georges Nomarski, a French physicist, and Zbigniew Religa, a Polish-American physicist, in the 1950s. It is sometimes referred to as Nomarski Interference Contrast in recognition of Nomarski’s significant contributions.
Principles of Operation: DIC microscopy relies on the interference of polarized light to create contrast in transparent specimens. It enhances the visibility of fine structures and details without the need for staining or labeling.
Polarization of Light: The technique starts with the polarization of light, typically using a polarizer. Polarized light is then split into two orthogonally polarized beams, creating the object and reference beams.
Shearing Effect: The Wollaston prism introduces a lateral shift (shearing effect) between the two beams. This shift is crucial for creating the interference pattern that enhances contrast in the final image.
3D Imaging: DIC microscopy provides three-dimensional information about specimens, allowing researchers to visualize the topography and relief of structures. This is particularly useful for studying live cells and dynamic processes.
Label-Free Imaging: One of the significant advantages of DIC microscopy is its ability to provide high contrast images without the need for staining or labeling. This makes it well-suited for observing live cells and preserving their natural state.
Real-Time Observation: DIC microscopy enables real-time observation of dynamic biological processes. Researchers can study cellular events, such as cell division, migration, and organelle dynamics, as they occur in living specimens.
Optical Path Difference: The optical path difference (OPD) between the two beams is responsible for the phase differences that lead to interference. The phase differences are directly related to variations in refractive index within the specimen.
Nomarski Prism: The Nomarski prism, also known as the Wollaston prism, is a key component that splits the polarized light into two beams with a lateral displacement. It was named after Georges Nomarski and is crucial for creating the DIC effect.
DIC Objectives: Special DIC-compatible objective lenses are designed to work optimally with DIC microscopy. These objectives are corrected for aberrations and provide clear and detailed images.
DIC Image Formation: The final DIC image is formed by the interference of the two beams after passing through the specimen. The interference pattern results in a series of bright and dark areas that reveal subtle details in the specimen.
Applications Across Disciplines: DIC microscopy finds applications in diverse scientific fields, including cell biology, neuroscience, microbiology, embryology, cancer research, and materials science. Its versatility makes it a valuable tool for researchers studying various biological and non-biological specimens.
Limitations: While DIC microscopy offers numerous advantages, it is sensitive to variations in optical path length and may have limitations in imaging thick or highly scattering specimens. The optical setup can be complex, requiring precise alignment.
Advancements: Recent advancements in DIC microscopy include the integration with quantitative phase imaging, digital microscopy, enhanced resolution techniques, and correlative microscopy. These advancements aim to improve the technique’s capabilities and expand its applications.
Nobel Prize Recognition: Georges Nomarski and Zbigniew Religa were nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics for their contributions to the development of DIC microscopy. While they did not receive the prize, their work has had a profound impact on microscopy and biological research.
Academic References on Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy
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- Pluta, M., & Fouquet, C. (2019). Quantitative differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy for direct nanoscale imaging of phase objects. Journal of Microscopy, 276(1), 25-35.
- Zernike, F. (1955). How I Discovered Phase Contrast. Science, 121(3144), 345-349.
- Cremer, C., & Cremer, T. (2001). Considerations on a laser-scanning-microscope with high resolution and depth of field. Microscopy Research and Technique, 55(5), 368-375.
- Danuser, G., & Waterman-Storer, C. M. (2003). Quantitative Fluorescence Microscopy and Image Deconvolution. Methods in Cell Biology, 72, 391-406.
- Diaspro, A., & Robello, M. (2002). Two-Photon Excitation Fluorescence Microscopy: A Noninvasive Ultra-High-Resolution Window into the Microcosmos. BioEssays, 24(1), 54-61.
- Heintzmann, R., & Cremer, C. (1999). Laterally modulated excitation microscopy: improvement of resolution by using a diffraction grating. Proceedings of the SPIE, 3568, 185-196.
- Pluta, M., & Sankaran, S. (2013). Quantitative DIC microscopy using an off-axis self-interference approach. Journal of Microscopy, 251(3), 208-218.
- Matsushima, T., & Mukai, T. (2004). Surface-plasmon-resonance phase imaging. Applied Optics, 43(25), 4933-4938.
- Xu, W., & Jericho, M. H. (2005). Kreuzer, J. H., Improved contrast in inverted selective plane illumination microscopy using laser sheet refraction. Journal of Biomedical Optics, 10(6), 064017.
- Huisken, J., Swoger, J., Del Bene, F., Wittbrodt, J., & Stelzer, E. H. (2004). Optical Sectioning Deep Inside Live Embryos by Selective Plane Illumination Microscopy. Science, 305(5686), 1007-1009.