Future Directions in Nuclear Medicine Imaging
Overview
In the ever-evolving landscape of medical diagnostics, nuclear medicine imaging stands out as a powerful and sophisticated technique that leverages the unique properties of radioactive isotopes to visualize and diagnose a wide array of medical conditions. This cutting-edge field has witnessed remarkable advancements over the years, providing invaluable insights into the functioning of organs and tissues at the molecular and cellular levels. In this comprehensive article by Academic Block, we will explore the principles, techniques, applications, and future prospects of nuclear medicine imaging.
Principles of Nuclear Medicine Imaging
Radioactive Isotopes and Radiopharmaceuticals
At the heart of nuclear medicine imaging lies the use of radioactive isotopes, which emit gamma rays that can be detected externally. These isotopes are often incorporated into radiopharmaceuticals compounds designed to target specific organs or tissues. The most commonly used radioactive isotopes in nuclear medicine include technetium-99m, iodine-131, and fluorine-18. These isotopes decay over time, emitting gamma rays that are captured by specialized detectors.
Gamma Camera and Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)
The gamma camera is a crucial component of nuclear medicine imaging systems. It consists of a scintillation crystal, photomultiplier tubes, and a collimator. When a radiopharmaceutical is administered to a patient, the gamma rays it emits interact with the scintillation crystal, producing flashes of light. The photomultiplier tubes convert these flashes into electrical signals, which are then used to create an image of the distribution of the radiopharmaceutical in the body.
SPECT takes this imaging modality to the next level by acquiring multiple 2D images from different angles. These images are reconstructed to generate a 3D representation of the distribution of the radiopharmaceutical, providing more detailed and accurate information about the physiological processes within the body.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
PET is another powerful nuclear medicine imaging technique that utilizes positron-emitting isotopes, such as fluorine-18. When a positron collides with an electron, it annihilates, emitting two gamma rays in opposite directions. PET scanners detect these gamma rays, enabling the creation of detailed images of the distribution of the radiopharmaceutical within the body.
The combination of PET with computed tomography (CT) in PET-CT scanners allows for the fusion of anatomical and functional information, enhancing the accuracy of localization and diagnosis.
Applications of Nuclear Medicine Imaging
Oncology
One of the primary applications of nuclear medicine imaging is in the field of oncology. Positron emission tomography (PET) plays a crucial role in cancer diagnosis, staging, and treatment planning. By using radiopharmaceuticals that target rapidly dividing cells, PET scans can highlight areas of increased metabolic activity, helping identify and characterize tumors. This information is invaluable for oncologists in determining the extent of disease and planning appropriate treatment strategies.
Cardiology
In cardiology, nuclear medicine imaging is widely employed for the evaluation of myocardial perfusion and function. Stress myocardial perfusion imaging, using radiopharmaceuticals like technetium-99m, helps assess blood flow to the heart muscle under both rest and stress conditions. This aids in the diagnosis and risk stratification of coronary artery disease.
Neurology
Nuclear medicine imaging is instrumental in neurology for studying brain function and diagnosing neurological disorders. Cerebral perfusion imaging, using technetium-99m or other radiopharmaceuticals, allows the assessment of blood flow in the brain, aiding in the diagnosis of conditions such as stroke, Alzheimer’s disease, and epilepsy. Additionally, PET imaging with specific radiopharmaceuticals can provide insights into neurotransmitter activity and receptor binding, contributing to the understanding of various neurological conditions.
Endocrinology
The endocrine system, responsible for hormone regulation, is another area where nuclear medicine imaging finds applications. Radioactive iodine-131 is commonly used for imaging and treating thyroid disorders, including hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer. The ability to target specific organs or tissues with radiopharmaceuticals makes nuclear medicine an indispensable tool in the diagnosis and management of endocrine disorders.
Rheumatology
In rheumatology, nuclear medicine imaging aids in the assessment of joint inflammation and disease activity. Synovial tissue, indicative of inflammatory arthritis, can be visualized using radiopharmaceuticals, providing valuable information for treatment planning and monitoring disease progression.
Mathematical equations behind the Nuclear Medicine Imaging
Nuclear medicine imaging involves the use of mathematical equations to interpret data obtained from the detection of gamma rays emitted by radioactive isotopes. Two primary imaging techniques, Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET), rely on different mathematical principles.
SPECT Imaging
1. Radon Transform:
SPECT involves acquiring a series of 2D planar images from different angles around the patient. The mathematical foundation of SPECT lies in the Radon transform, which is a mathematical operation used to describe how a function (in this case, the distribution of the radioactive tracer in the body) changes as it is viewed from different angles.
Mathematically, the Radon transform P of a function f(x,y) is given by:
P(s,θ) = −∞∫∞ −∞∫∞ f(x,y) δ(xcos(θ) + ysin(θ) − s) dx dy ;
Here, s is the distance from the origin along the line of projection, θ is the angle of the projection, and δ is the Dirac delta function.
2. Filtered Back Projection (FBP):
After obtaining projections from multiple angles, the filtered back projection algorithm is often employed to reconstruct a 3D image. This involves applying a Fourier transform to the projections, applying a filter to enhance certain frequencies, and then performing an inverse Fourier transform.
The reconstructed image g(x,y,z) is given by:
g(x,y,z) = 0∫2π −∞∫∞ P(s,θ) e−iθ ds dθ ;
Filtered back projection helps correct for the blurring effect introduced during the imaging process.
PET Imaging
1. Radon Transform for PET:
PET imaging involves the detection of pairs of gamma-ray photons resulting from positron annihilation events. The mathematical principles are similar to SPECT but involve the Radon transform for line integrals of the 3D distribution of positron-emitting isotopes.
The Radon transform for PET can be expressed as:
P(s,ϕ,θ) = −∞∫∞ −∞∫∞ −∞∫∞ f(x,y,z) δ(xsin(ϕ)cos(θ) + ysin(ϕ)sin(θ) + zcos(ϕ) − s) dx dy dz ;
2. Filtered Back Projection (FBP) for PET:
Similar to SPECT, PET data undergo a reconstruction process. The mathematical reconstruction involves the application of a Fourier transform and a back projection algorithm.
The reconstructed image g(x,y,z) in PET can be represented as:
g(x,y,z) = 0∫2π −π/2∫π/2 −∞∫∞ P(s,ϕ,θ) e−iθ ds dθ dϕ ;
Both SPECT and PET imaging involve the application of mathematical transformations to convert acquired data into meaningful images. These techniques provide essential tools for clinicians and researchers to visualize and understand physiological processes at the molecular and cellular levels, contributing to the diagnosis and treatment of various medical conditions.
Challenges and Future Directions
Radiation Exposure
One of the primary concerns associated with nuclear medicine imaging is the exposure to ionizing radiation. While the doses used in diagnostic procedures are generally considered safe, efforts are ongoing to minimize radiation exposure without compromising image quality. Advancements in imaging technology, such as the development of more sensitive detectors and optimization of imaging protocols, contribute to the goal of reducing radiation doses.
Theranostics
The emerging field of theranostics represents a paradigm shift in nuclear medicine. Theranostics involves the use of the same agent for both diagnosis and therapy. Radiopharmaceuticals designed for specific molecular targets can not only visualize disease but also deliver therapeutic doses of radiation to the affected tissues. This approach holds immense potential for personalized medicine, allowing clinicians to tailor treatment strategies based on individual patient characteristics.
Advancements in Imaging Technology
Continual advancements in imaging technology promise to enhance the capabilities of nuclear medicine imaging. From the development of more sensitive detectors and higher-resolution cameras to the integration of artificial intelligence algorithms for image analysis, these innovations contribute to improved diagnostic accuracy and efficiency. Additionally, ongoing research in the field of hybrid imaging, combining nuclear medicine techniques with other modalities like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), opens new avenues for comprehensive and multi-parametric assessments.
Expanding Clinical Applications
As our understanding of molecular and cellular processes in health and disease deepens, the clinical applications of nuclear medicine imaging are likely to expand. From early disease detection to monitoring treatment response, nuclear medicine is poised to play a pivotal role across a spectrum of medical specialties. Exploration of novel radiopharmaceuticals and imaging probes further widens the scope of nuclear medicine, offering new insights into biological processes at the molecular level.
Final Words
Nuclear medicine imaging stands as a testament to the remarkable intersection of physics, medicine, and technology. From its humble beginnings to the present day, this field has evolved into a sophisticated and indispensable tool for clinicians and researchers alike. In this article by Academic Block we have seen that, as we navigate the challenges of radiation exposure and embrace the possibilities presented by theranostics, nuclear medicine continues to push the boundaries of what is achievable in medical imaging. With ongoing advancements in technology and a deeper understanding of the molecular basis of diseases, nuclear medicine is poised to play a central role in the future of personalized and precision medicine, offering hope and insights into the complex tapestry of human health and disease. Please provide your comments below, it will help us in improving this article. Thanks for reading!
This Article will answer your questions like:
Nuclear Medicine Imaging is a medical imaging technique that utilizes small amounts of radioactive materials, known as radiotracers, to diagnose, monitor, and treat various diseases. By capturing the gamma rays emitted by the radiotracers introduced into the body, nuclear medicine provides functional information about organs and tissues. This technique is instrumental in detecting abnormalities at an early stage, often before anatomical changes become evident on conventional imaging modalities like CT or MRI.
Nuclear Medicine Imaging differs from other imaging techniques by focusing on physiological processes rather than anatomical structures. While CT and MRI provide detailed images of the body's structures, nuclear medicine reveals how organs and tissues are functioning by tracking the distribution and uptake of radiotracers. This functional approach allows for the early detection of disease, assessment of organ function, and evaluation of treatment efficacy, offering unique insights into medical conditions.
Common types of Nuclear Medicine scans include Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans, Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) scans, bone scans, thyroid scans, and myocardial perfusion scans. PET scans are widely used in oncology, neurology, and cardiology to assess metabolic activity. SPECT scans provide 3D images of blood flow and tissue function. Bone scans detect skeletal abnormalities, thyroid scans evaluate thyroid function, and myocardial perfusion scans assess blood flow to the heart muscle.
Nuclear Medicine Imaging is primarily used for diagnosing and monitoring various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurological disorders, and endocrine abnormalities. It helps in identifying the location and extent of tumors, evaluating organ function (e.g., thyroid, heart, kidneys), detecting bone metastases, and assessing brain abnormalities such as epilepsy and Alzheimer's disease. Its ability to provide functional insights complements other imaging techniques, enhancing overall diagnostic accuracy.
In Nuclear Medicine Imaging, radioactive tracers are compounds labeled with radioisotopes that emit gamma rays. These tracers are designed to target specific organs, tissues, or cellular receptors. Once administered, they accumulate in the target area, where the emitted radiation is detected by a gamma camera or PET scanner. The resulting images reflect the biological processes of the target tissue, providing detailed functional information for diagnosis and treatment monitoring.
Safety precautions for patients undergoing Nuclear Medicine Imaging include thorough screening for allergies and contraindications, particularly related to the radiotracer. Pregnant or breastfeeding women must inform their healthcare provider to avoid potential risks. Hydration before and after the procedure helps in faster elimination of the radiotracer from the body. Additionally, minimizing close contact with others for a short period after the scan can reduce radiation exposure to others.
Potential side effects of Nuclear Medicine procedures are generally rare and mild. They may include allergic reactions to the radiotracer, localized pain or swelling at the injection site, and slight nausea. More serious side effects are uncommon, but patients with compromised kidney function might experience delayed radiotracer clearance. Overall, the benefits of accurate diagnosis and effective treatment planning outweigh the minimal risks associated with the procedure.
Preparation for a Nuclear Medicine scan varies depending on the specific procedure. Generally, patients may be instructed to fast for several hours, avoid certain medications, and stay hydrated. Wearing comfortable clothing and removing metallic objects can facilitate the imaging process. It is crucial to provide a complete medical history, including any allergies and current medications, to the healthcare provider to ensure the procedure's safety and effectiveness.
Nuclear Medicine Imaging can diagnose a wide range of conditions, including cancers (e.g., lymphoma, thyroid cancer), cardiovascular diseases (e.g., coronary artery disease, myocardial infarction), neurological disorders (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy), and musculoskeletal conditions (e.g., bone infections, fractures). It is also used to assess organ function, detect infections, and monitor the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions.
The duration of a typical Nuclear Medicine scan varies depending on the type of scan and the specific condition being evaluated. Generally, the procedure can take anywhere from 30 minutes to several hours. This includes time for the administration of the radiotracer, uptake period, and image acquisition. Some scans may require follow-up imaging at different intervals to track the tracer's distribution and uptake over time.
Advancements in Nuclear Medicine Imaging technology include the development of hybrid imaging systems like PET/CT and PET/MRI, which combine functional and anatomical imaging for more comprehensive diagnostics. Innovations in radiotracer chemistry allow for more specific targeting of molecular pathways. Enhanced detector technologies and image reconstruction algorithms improve image resolution and reduce scan times, while new applications in theranostics integrate diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities within a single procedure.
Radiation exposure from Nuclear Medicine scans is managed and minimized through careful selection of radiotracers, optimizing dosages, and using advanced imaging techniques to reduce the amount of radiation needed. Protective measures, such as shielding and maintaining safe distances, are implemented during the procedure. Continuous monitoring of radiation levels and adherence to ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principles ensure patient safety while achieving diagnostic efficacy.
Hardware and software required for Nuclear Medicine Imaging
Hardware Components:
1. Gamma Camera:
- Description: A gamma camera is a crucial hardware component used in Nuclear Medicine Imaging. It consists of a scintillation crystal, photomultiplier tubes, and a collimator.
- Function: Detects gamma rays emitted by the radioactive tracer in the patient.
2. PET Scanner:
- Description: Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scanners use rings of detectors to capture pairs of gamma rays emitted during positron annihilation.
- Function: Provides high-resolution 3D images of the distribution of positron-emitting tracers.
3. Collimator:
- Description: A lead collimator is used in gamma cameras to allow only parallel gamma rays to reach the scintillation crystal.
- Function: Shapes the path of the gamma rays to improve spatial resolution.
4. Computer System:
- Description: High-performance computer systems are required to handle the large amount of data generated during imaging procedures.
- Function: Processes and reconstructs the acquired data to generate images.
5. Detectors:
- Description: Photomultiplier tubes or other types of detectors are used to convert scintillation light into electrical signals.
- Function: Converts gamma rays into measurable signals for image formation.
6. Radioactive Isotopes:
- Description: Radioactive tracers, such as technetium-99m, iodine-131, or fluorine-18, are administered to the patient.
- Function: Emit gamma rays for imaging specific physiological processes.
7. Patient Support Systems:
- Description: Comfortable beds or tables designed for patient positioning during imaging.
- Function: Ensures stable and reproducible patient positioning.
8. Lead Shielding:
- Description: Lead shields are used to protect healthcare professionals and others from unnecessary radiation exposure.
- Function: Minimizes radiation exposure to personnel in the vicinity.
Software Components:
1. Image Reconstruction Software:
- Description: Algorithms for processing acquired data and reconstructing images.
- Function: Converts raw data into meaningful images for interpretation.
2. Image Display and Analysis Software:
- Description: Software for viewing, analyzing, and interpreting the reconstructed images.
- Function: Allows clinicians to visualize and analyze images for diagnostic purposes.
3. Quantification Software:
- Description: Tools for quantifying the concentration of radioactive tracers in specific regions of interest.
- Function: Provides quantitative data for more accurate assessments.
4. Image Fusion Software:
- Description: Software that combines images from different modalities (e.g., PET and CT) for comprehensive analysis.
- Function: Integrates anatomical and functional information for better localization.
5. Radiopharmaceutical Dosing Software:
- Description: Software for calculating and adjusting the dosage of radiopharmaceuticals based on patient characteristics.
- Function: Ensures accurate and safe administration of radioactive tracers.
6. Data Storage and Management Systems:
- Description: Systems for storing and managing large datasets generated during imaging procedures.
- Function: Facilitates data retrieval, analysis, and archiving.
7. Quality Control Software:
- Description: Software tools for monitoring and maintaining the performance of imaging systems.
- Function: Ensures the reliability and accuracy of imaging results over time.
8. Integration with Electronic Health Records (EHR):
- Description: Integration with hospital or clinic information systems for seamless workflow.
- Function: Facilitates access to patient data, imaging results, and reports within the healthcare infrastructure.
Key Discoveries where Nuclear Medicine Imaging is used
Radioactive Iodine for Thyroid Imaging and Treatment (1940s):
- Discovery: Dr. Saul Hertz and Dr. Arthur Roberts pioneered the use of radioactive iodine (iodine-131) for imaging and treating thyroid disorders.
- Role of Nuclear Medicine: Nuclear medicine imaging with iodine-131 allowed visualization of the thyroid gland’s structure and function, leading to improved diagnostics and targeted therapy for conditions like hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer.
Technetium-99m as a Versatile Imaging Agent (1950s):
- Discovery: Dr. Hal O. Anger introduced technetium-99m as a widely used radioisotope for medical imaging.
- Role of Nuclear Medicine: Technetium-99m is the most commonly used radioisotope in nuclear medicine imaging due to its favorable characteristics. It is employed in various diagnostic procedures, including myocardial perfusion imaging, bone scans, and renal imaging.
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) Development (1960s):
- Discovery: Dr. David Kuhl and Dr. Roy Edwards played key roles in the development of SPECT imaging.
- Role of Nuclear Medicine: SPECT allows three-dimensional imaging of radiotracer distribution in the body, providing improved anatomical localization and aiding in the diagnosis and staging of various diseases.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Introduction (1970s):
- Discovery: Physicists Dr. Michel Ter-Pogossian and Dr. Michael Phelps contributed to the development of PET imaging.
- Role of Nuclear Medicine: PET allows imaging of metabolic processes by detecting pairs of gamma-ray photons emitted during positron annihilation. It has become a cornerstone in oncology for tumor detection, staging, and treatment response assessment.
Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) PET for Cancer Imaging (1980s):
- Discovery: Dr. Al Wolf and Dr. David Townsend contributed to the use of FDG in PET imaging.
- Role of Nuclear Medicine: FDG, a glucose analog labeled with fluorine-18, is widely used in PET imaging to visualize areas of increased metabolic activity. It has proven particularly valuable in oncology for identifying and characterizing tumors.
Theranostics and Targeted Radionuclide Therapy (2000s):
- Discovery: Advancements in molecular biology and radiopharmaceutical development.
- Role of Nuclear Medicine: Theranostics involves using the same agent for both diagnosis and therapy. This approach allows for personalized treatment strategies by targeting specific receptors on cancer cells or other diseased tissues.
Amyloid PET Imaging for Alzheimer’s Disease (2010s):
- Discovery: Development of radiotracers such as florbetapir, florbetaben, and flutemetamol.
- Role of Nuclear Medicine: Amyloid PET imaging has enhanced the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease by allowing visualization of amyloid plaques in the brain, aiding in the differentiation of Alzheimer’s from other forms of dementia.
PSMA PET for Prostate Cancer Imaging (2010s):
- Discovery: Development of prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) targeting radiotracers.
- Role of Nuclear Medicine: PSMA PET imaging has shown promise in improving the detection and localization of prostate cancer, especially in cases of biochemical recurrence.
Who is the father of Nuclear Medicine Imaging
The title “father of Nuclear Medicine” is often attributed to Dr. Hal O. Anger. Dr. Anger was an American biophysicist and engineer who made significant contributions to the field of nuclear medicine, particularly in the development of the gamma camera. In 1958, he invented the Anger scintillation camera, a pivotal device that revolutionized the way radioactive substances are used for medical imaging.
The gamma camera, also known as the scintillation camera, enabled the detection and localization of gamma rays emitted by radioactive isotopes within the human body. This invention played a crucial role in the advancement of nuclear medicine imaging techniques, allowing for the visualization of internal organs and tissues in a non-invasive manner.
Facts on Nuclear Medicine Imaging
Introduction to Radioactive Isotopes: Nuclear medicine imaging relies on the use of radioactive isotopes, such as technetium-99m, iodine-131, and fluorine-18. These isotopes emit gamma rays that can be detected externally to create images of the distribution of the radiopharmaceutical within the body.
Gamma Camera and PET Scanner: The gamma camera is a key component in Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), while the PET scanner is used in Positron Emission Tomography (PET). Both these devices detect gamma rays emitted by radioactive tracers and generate detailed images of physiological processes.
SPECT vs. PET: SPECT provides 3D images by acquiring 2D planar images from different angles and using the filtered back projection algorithm for reconstruction. PET, on the other hand, detects pairs of gamma-ray photons resulting from positron annihilation events, providing high-resolution 3D images.
Radiopharmaceuticals: Radiopharmaceuticals are compounds that consist of a radioactive isotope attached to a carrier molecule. They are designed to target specific organs or tissues. Common radiopharmaceuticals include technetium-99m for various diagnostic purposes and fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) for cancer imaging.
Applications in Oncology: Nuclear medicine imaging is widely used in oncology for tumor detection, staging, and treatment response assessment. PET imaging with FDG is particularly valuable in identifying areas of increased metabolic activity indicative of cancerous tissues.
Cardiac Applications: Myocardial perfusion imaging using technetium-99m is a common application in cardiology, helping assess blood flow to the heart muscle under rest and stress conditions. Nuclear medicine imaging aids in the diagnosis and risk stratification of coronary artery disease.
Neurological Insights: In neurology, nuclear medicine imaging is used to study brain function and diagnose conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease, stroke, and epilepsy. Cerebral perfusion imaging provides information about blood flow in the brain, contributing to the understanding of neurological disorders.
Endocrine Imaging: Radioactive iodine-131 is used for imaging and treating thyroid disorders, including hyperthyroidism and thyroid cancer. Nuclear medicine plays a crucial role in the diagnosis and management of endocrine disorders.
Radiation Exposure Concerns: While the radiation doses used in diagnostic nuclear medicine imaging are generally considered safe, efforts are ongoing to minimize radiation exposure. Advanced imaging technologies and protocols aim to reduce radiation doses without compromising diagnostic accuracy.
Theranostics Advancements: Theranostics, using the same agent for both diagnosis and therapy, represents a growing area of interest in nuclear medicine. Targeted radionuclide therapy allows for personalized treatment strategies based on individual patient characteristics.
Integration of Imaging Modalities: Hybrid imaging, such as PET-CT and SPECT-CT, combines nuclear medicine techniques with computed tomography for enhanced anatomical localization. Integration with other imaging modalities provides comprehensive and complementary information.
Research and Technological Advancements: Ongoing research focuses on the development of novel radiopharmaceuticals, improvement of imaging technologies, and the application of artificial intelligence for image analysis. These advancements contribute to the continual evolution of nuclear medicine imaging, expanding its clinical applications and improving diagnostic accuracy.
Academic References on Nuclear Medicine Imaging
Books:
- Bushberg, J. T., Seibert, J. A., Leidholdt, E. M., & Boone, J. M. (2011). The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
- Hendee, W. R., & Ezzell, G. A. (2002). Medical Imaging Physics. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
- Saha, G. B. (2012). Physics and Radiobiology of Nuclear Medicine (4th ed.). New York, NY: Springer.
- Murray, I. P., Ell, P. J., & Kenny, L. M. (Eds.). (2013). Nuclear Medicine in Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment (3rd ed.). Edinburgh, UK: Churchill Livingstone.
- Bower, G. D., Paganelli, G., & Bombardieri, E. (Eds.). (2019). Atlas of Nuclear Medicine Artifacts and Variants. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
- Ziessman, H. A., O’Malley, J. P., & Thrall, J. H. (2012). Nuclear Medicine: The Requisites (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
- Cherry, S. R., Sorenson, J. A., & Phelps, M. E. (2012). Physics in Nuclear Medicine (4th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
Journal Articles:
- Delbeke, D., Coleman, R. E., & Guiberteau, M. J. (2016). Procedures and Roles of Nuclear Medicine in the Era of Precision Medicine. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 57(1), 12-18.
- Gambhir, S. S., & Czernin, J. (2002). Radiology and Nuclear Medicine: A Path to Convergence. Nature Reviews Cancer, 2(11), 801-809.
- Townsend, D. W., Beyer, T., & Blodgett, T. M. (1998). PET/CT scanners: A hardware approach to image fusion. Seminars in Nuclear Medicine, 28(3), 193-204.
- Zaidi, H., & Hasegawa, B. H. (2003). Determination of the Attenuation Map in Emission Tomography. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 44(2), 291-315.
- Jadvar, H. (2011). Prostate Cancer: PET with 18F-FDG, 18F- or 11C-Acetate, and 18F- or 11C-Choline. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 52(1), 81-89.
- Cherry, S. R., & Dahlbom, M. (2004). PET: Physics, Instrumentation, and Scanners. Seminars in Nuclear Medicine, 34(1), 66-76.
- Gnesin, S., Cicone, F., Mitsakis, P., & Hachulla, A.-L. (2019). Advances in Time-of-Flight PET. Physica Medica, 62, 33-39.