Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism

Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism: Diplomacy in Divided Societies

Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism is an interdisciplinary investigation into societal differences caused by ethnic identity and nationalist ideas. It investigates historical foundations, current expressions and global events, highlighting challenges in conflict resolution and global relations in terms of identity politics.
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Overview

Ethnic conflict and nationalism are two interconnected phenomena that have shaped the trajectory of modern political, social, and cultural landscapes across the globe. From the Balkans to Africa, from the Middle East to South Asia, these forces have influenced the formation and disintegration of states, as well as the lives of millions of people. Ethnic conflict often arises when groups with distinct identities—whether based on language, religion, or cultural traditions—find themselves in competition for political power, economic resources, or territory. Nationalism, on the other hand, provides a political and ideological framework through which these groups can assert their rights, often in opposition to the state or other ethnic groups. This article by Academic Block explores the interplay between ethnic conflict and nationalism, analyzing their causes, manifestations, and implications for state stability, international relations, and human rights.

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Understanding Ethnic Conflict

Defining Ethnic Identity

Ethnic identity is formed around shared traits, such as language, religion, culture, and common ancestry. Unlike racial categories, which are often biologically defined, ethnicity is primarily a social construct that reflects a group’s historical, cultural, and geographical commonalities. Ethnic groups define themselves and are defined by others through a sense of shared history, experience, and often a collective memory of struggles, triumphs, and cultural practices passed down through generations.

Ethnic identity can serve as a powerful force for group cohesion, creating a sense of belonging and solidarity. However, when this identity is threatened, either by external forces or by the dominance of other groups, it can lead to ethnic conflict. Ethnic conflict emerges when different ethnic groups clash over issues such as territory, political representation, cultural autonomy, and access to resources. This conflict often escalates when these issues intersect with political ideologies and nationalist sentiments.

The Origins of Ethnic Conflict

Ethnic conflicts are not spontaneous but rather emerge from complex historical, political, and economic factors. One of the primary origins of ethnic conflict can be traced to colonialism, which often imposed artificial borders, divided communities, and exacerbated ethnic divisions. During colonial rule, European powers often manipulated ethnic groups to serve their own interests, creating hierarchical systems that sowed the seeds of future conflicts. For example, colonial powers like Britain and France employed a "divide and rule" strategy, pitting different ethnic groups against one another to maintain control over their colonies.

After decolonization, the newly formed nations inherited these artificial borders, which often did not align with the social, ethnic, or cultural realities on the ground. This dissonance between colonial-imposed boundaries and the ethnic realities of the region has led to long-standing conflicts, especially when dominant ethnic groups sought to marginalize or assimilate minorities.

Ethnic Conflict and State Formation

One of the most significant factors contributing to ethnic conflict is the struggle for power within a state. Ethnic groups within a state often demand recognition, autonomy, or independence, especially when they perceive themselves as politically or economically marginalized. The state itself, in an effort to maintain its sovereignty, may either accommodate or suppress these demands, resulting in violent ethnic conflict.

This is particularly evident in multi-ethnic societies where political power is distributed unequally. For instance, in Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese-majority government systematically marginalized the Tamil minority, leading to a protracted civil war that lasted for nearly three decades. The Tamil Tigers, a separatist group seeking an independent Tamil Eelam, were driven by both ethnic identity and nationalism. This conflict was not only about ethnic differences but also about political power, autonomy, and control over resources.

Causes and Drivers of Ethnic Conflict

Ethnic conflict arises from a mix of historical, political, social, and economic factors. Key drivers include:

  1. Historical Grievances : Past injustices, such as colonialism or ethnic repression, often linger, fueling resentment and conflict.

  2. Colonial Legacy : Artificial borders drawn by colonial powers forced ethnic groups into competition, sowing the seeds for future conflict.

  3. Political Exclusion : Marginalization and discrimination against ethnic groups in political and economic spheres can lead to violent resistance.

  4. Resource Competition : Struggles for access to valuable resources like land, oil, or water can intensify ethnic tensions.

  5. Ethnic Nationalism : The desire for self-determination and political power based on ethnic identity can spark conflict, as seen in the breakup of Yugoslavia.

  6. Religious Conflict : Religious identity intertwined with ethnicity can escalate conflict, as religious nationalism fuels division, such as in India or the Middle East.

  7. Social and Economic Inequality : When one ethnic group dominates politically and economically, it can lead to resentment and rebellion from marginalized groups.

  8. External Intervention : Foreign powers’ involvement in ethnic conflicts, either to gain political advantage or for humanitarian reasons, can escalate tensions.

Types of Ethnic Groups

Ethnic groups are diverse, and their classification can vary based on historical, cultural, religious, and linguistic factors. Understanding the different types of ethnic groups is essential in grasping the complexities of ethnic conflict and nationalism. While the classification of ethnic groups can be subjective and fluid, they are typically categorized into the following types:

1. Indigenous Groups

Indigenous groups, often referred to as native peoples, are those who have historical ties to a particular territory before the arrival of colonizing powers or dominant cultures. They tend to have distinct cultural, religious, and social practices that are closely tied to their ancestral lands. Indigenous groups often face marginalization and struggle to preserve their cultural heritage and autonomy. Examples include Native American tribes in the United States, the Adivasis in India, and the Aboriginal peoples in Australia.

2. Ethnolinguistic Groups

Ethnolinguistic groups are those whose members share a common language and culture. Language plays a central role in defining these groups, serving as both a marker of identity and a tool for communication. Ethnolinguistic groups can span across borders and are sometimes spread over multiple countries or regions. Examples include the Kurds, who are spread across Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, and the Basques in Spain and France.

3. Religious Ethnic Groups

Religious identity can be a significant component of ethnic identity, especially in regions where religious and ethnic lines are closely intertwined. Religious ethnic groups not only share common religious beliefs but also have unique cultural practices, traditions, and sometimes even language. In cases like these, ethnic identity cannot be separated from religious identity. Examples include the Jews, who share a common religious and ethnic identity, and the Coptic Christians in Egypt.

4. Diaspora Groups

Diaspora groups are ethnic communities that have been dispersed from their original homeland, often due to historical events like migration, war, or slavery. Despite being geographically separated, diaspora communities maintain strong cultural, social, and political connections to their places of origin. These groups can play significant roles in ethnic conflict, as their collective memories of displacement and their continued connection to their homeland often fuel nationalist sentiments. The Armenian diaspora, the Jewish diaspora, and the Indian diaspora are all notable examples.

5. Cultural and Linguistic Minorities

In many multi-ethnic societies, smaller ethnic groups, often distinguished by unique cultural practices, languages, or traditions, coexist with dominant groups. These ethnic minorities often face discrimination, cultural assimilation pressures, and economic marginalization. These groups may seek greater recognition, autonomy, or independence to preserve their distinct identities. Examples include the Zulu in South Africa, the Hmong in Southeast Asia, and the Tamils in Sri Lanka.

6. Ethnic Majorities

While ethnic minorities often receive the focus in discussions about ethnic conflict, ethnic majorities also play an important role in shaping the dynamics of ethnic relations. Ethnic majorities may control political power and economic resources, often leading to the marginalization or oppression of minority groups. In some cases, ethnic majorities may form nationalist movements that emphasize their dominance and push for policies that further entrench their control. Examples of ethnic majorities include the Han Chinese in China and the Russians in Russia.

The table below provides a clear breakdown of the different types of ethnic groups based on shared characteristics such as culture, language, religion, historical ties, and geographic dispersion:

Type of Ethnic Group
Description
Examples
Indigenous Groups
Native peoples with historical ties to a specific territory before colonization or cultural domination. Often face marginalization and struggle for cultural preservation.
Native American tribes (USA), Adivasis (India), Aboriginal peoples (Australia)
Ethnolinguistic Groups
Groups united by a common language and culture, which often spans across borders and regions.
Kurds (Turkey, Iraq, Syria, Iran), Basques (Spain, France)
Religious Ethnic Groups
Groups where religion is a significant component of ethnic identity, often intertwined with culture and language.
Jews, Coptic Christians (Egypt)
Diaspora Groups
Ethnic communities dispersed from their homeland due to migration, war, or slavery, maintaining cultural, social, and political ties to their origin.
Armenian diaspora, Jewish diaspora, Indian diaspora
Cultural and Linguistic Minorities
Smaller ethnic groups distinguished by unique languages, traditions, and cultural practices within larger multi-ethnic societies. Often face discrimination and assimilation pressures.
Zulu (South Africa), Hmong (Southeast Asia), Tamils (Sri Lanka)
Ethnic Majorities
Larger ethnic groups that may hold political power, economic resources, and dominant social status. Often involved in nationalist movements.
Han Chinese (China), Russians (Russia)

Theories of Ethnic Identity

Ethnic identity refers to a person's sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group, influenced by shared culture, language, traditions, and history. Various theories explore how ethnic identities are formed and maintained:

  1. Primordialism : Primordialism, suggests that ethnic identity is ancient, fixed, and deeply rooted in long-standing cultural traditions, often considered inherent and unchangeable. This view explains the strong emotional connection many individuals feel to their ethnic group, but it has been criticized for overemphasizing the stability of ethnic identity and overlooking its fluid nature in response to social and political changes.

  2. Constructivism : Constructivism argues that ethnic identity is socially constructed and can evolve over time, shaped by historical, social, and political contexts. This theory acknowledges that ethnic groups are formed through negotiations and external influences, providing a framework to understand the adaptability of ethnic identity in response to migration or globalization. However, critics argue that it may underestimate the importance of deep-rooted cultural traditions.

  3. Instrumentalism : Instrumentalism takes a different approach, suggesting that ethnic identity is often strategically used by individuals or groups to achieve political or economic goals. According to this theory, ethnic identities can be manipulated for power, making ethnicity a tool rather than a fixed characteristic. While it offers insights into the political use of ethnicity, it has been criticized for reducing ethnic identity to mere manipulation, ignoring the emotional and cultural attachments people have to their groups.

  4. Social Identity Theory : This theory developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner, focuses on the way individuals categorize themselves into groups, creating a sense of belonging and self-esteem through their ethnic affiliations. This theory helps explain the dynamics of intergroup conflict, as individuals tend to differentiate their "in-group" from "out-groups," but it has been critiqued for overlooking broader societal and historical factors that also shape ethnic identity.

  5. Postcolonial Theory : The Postcolonial Theory highlights the enduring influence of colonialism on ethnic identity, emphasizing how colonized peoples’ identities were shaped by colonial histories and power imbalances. This theory sheds light on the continuing impact of colonial legacies, particularly in postcolonial societies, though some argue it can overgeneralize the effects of colonialism on all ethnic identities.

  6. Ethno-symbolism : Ethno-symbolism underscores the importance of cultural symbols, myths, and collective memories in the formation of ethnic identity. According to this theory, these symbols provide continuity across generations, fostering a shared sense of history and belonging. While it helps explain the persistence of ethnic identity in the absence of strong political or economic factors, critics suggest it may romanticize ethnicity and fail to address modern intergroup dynamics. Together, these theories provide a diverse framework for understanding how ethnic identity is constructed, maintained, and changed.

Nationalism as a Response to Ethnic Conflict

Nationalism has often emerged as a response to ethnic conflict, particularly in situations where ethnic groups seek self-determination or autonomy within a larger state. Nationalist movements advocate for the creation of a nation-state that aligns with the cultural, linguistic, or religious identity of a particular ethnic group. In some cases, nationalism has been a force for unity, leading to the formation of new states or the strengthening of existing ones. However, nationalism can also exacerbate ethnic conflict by encouraging exclusionary policies, promoting the idea of a "pure" national identity, and fostering competition among rival ethnic groups.

The rise of nationalism often coincides with the desire of ethnic groups to assert their autonomy and self-determination. This is particularly evident in post-colonial states, where newly formed borders often divide ethnic groups across national lines. In many cases, ethnic minorities have sought to create their own independent states or gain greater political autonomy within existing states. This desire for self-determination has been a driving force behind numerous independence movements, from the struggles for independence in Africa to the independence of the Baltic states from the Soviet Union.

However, nationalism can also be a double-edged sword. While it can serve as a unifying force for marginalized ethnic groups, it can also deepen ethnic divisions by emphasizing the superiority of one group over another. This type of ethnic nationalism can lead to violent conflict, as seen in the genocidal violence in Rwanda in the 1990s, where ethnic Hutus targeted Tutsis in a campaign of mass slaughter fueled by extreme nationalist rhetoric.

The Impact of Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism on State Stability

The relationship between ethnic conflict, nationalism, and state stability is complex and multifaceted. In some cases, ethnic conflict can lead to the disintegration of states, as was the case with the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. The rise of ethnic nationalism among different groups within the former Yugoslavia fueled separatist movements and led to brutal wars of independence, as ethnic Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks sought to carve out their own homelands. The result was a series of violent conflicts that resulted in the deaths of thousands and the displacement of millions.

In other instances, ethnic conflict and nationalism can lead to the strengthening of state structures, as governments seek to centralize power and impose unity through force. The state may respond to nationalist demands by creating policies of assimilation, attempting to suppress ethnic diversity, or promoting a national identity that aligns with the interests of the dominant ethnic group. These policies can result in increased tensions and violence, as ethnic minorities resist efforts to suppress their cultural identity. In some cases, such as in Turkey or China, the state has actively sought to assimilate ethnic minorities, leading to prolonged periods of unrest and resistance.

The impact of ethnic conflict and nationalism on state stability is not limited to the internal dynamics of states. International actors can also play a significant role in either exacerbating or mitigating ethnic conflict. In many cases, foreign powers have supported nationalist movements, either as a way to advance their own geopolitical interests or in response to requests for assistance from ethnic groups seeking autonomy. Conversely, international actors have also played a role in mediating peace agreements and promoting reconciliation, as was the case in the peace process that ended the civil war in Northern Ireland or the Dayton Accords that brought an end to the war in Bosnia.

Case Studies of Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism

The Balkan Wars and the Breakup of Yugoslavia

One of the most prominent examples of ethnic conflict and nationalism leading to the disintegration of a state is the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. Yugoslavia was a multi-ethnic federation that included ethnic Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, and Albanians, among others. However, the political and economic instability that followed the death of President Josip Broz Tito in 1980, combined with the rise of nationalist movements in the republics of Slovenia, Croatia, and Serbia, led to a series of brutal wars in the 1990s.

Ethnic nationalism played a central role in these conflicts. Serbian nationalists, led by figures like Slobodan Milošević, sought to create a Greater Serbia, which meant the forcible removal of non-Serbs from territories they claimed. This policy led to the ethnic cleansing of Bosniaks and Croats from areas under Serbian control and resulted in the genocide in Srebrenica in 1995. Similarly, Croat and Bosniak nationalists sought to create ethnically homogenous states, leading to further violence. The wars eventually ended with the signing of the Dayton Accords, which established Bosnia and Herzegovina as a multi-ethnic state divided along ethnic lines, a solution that sought to manage ethnic conflict but did little to resolve the underlying tensions.

The Rwandan Genocide

In contrast to the relatively slow-burning ethnic conflicts in the Balkans, the Rwandan Genocide of 1994 was a rapid and devastating example of how nationalism and ethnic conflict can lead to horrific violence. The genocide was the culmination of decades of ethnic tensions between the Hutu majority and Tutsi minority. Nationalist rhetoric, coupled with a long history of Hutu domination over the Tutsis, created an environment ripe for violence.

When the Rwandan president, Juvénal Habyarimana, was killed in a plane crash, extremist Hutu groups used the event as a pretext for unleashing a campaign of mass slaughter against the Tutsi population. The genocide resulted in the deaths of an estimated 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The international community’s failure to intervene in a timely manner, coupled with the role of nationalist ideologies that demonized the Tutsi population, contributed to the scale of the tragedy.

The Kashmir Conflict

The ongoing conflict between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region provides another example of how ethnic identity and nationalism can fuel prolonged conflict. The region is home to a Muslim-majority population that has historically sought independence or unification with Pakistan, while India has sought to maintain control over the region due to its strategic importance. The rise of ethnic nationalism in both countries, combined with religious and cultural differences, has resulted in repeated wars, military skirmishes, and a protracted insurgency.

The Kashmir conflict highlights the challenges of reconciling nationalism with territorial integrity. Both India and Pakistan have framed the conflict in terms of national sovereignty, but the ethnic identity of the Kashmiri people, who are largely Muslim, has been a central factor in the dispute. The conflict continues to be one of the most intractable and dangerous in the world.

Final Words

Ethnic conflict and nationalism are powerful forces that have shaped the history of nations and peoples. While nationalism can serve as a means for marginalized groups to assert their rights and identity, it can also deepen ethnic divisions and fuel violent conflict. The relationship between ethnic conflict and nationalism is complex, and the challenges of managing multi-ethnic societies remain a central issue for states around the world. As global interconnectedness continues to grow, understanding the dynamics of ethnic conflict and nationalism is crucial for promoting peace, stability, and respect for human rights in an increasingly diverse world. Hope this article by the Academic Block has provided valuable insights into the complex dynamics of ethnic conflict and nationalism, shedding light on the underlying causes and drivers that shape these issues. We welcome any thoughts or additional insights you may have on this topic in the comments section below. Thank you for reading!

This Article will answer your questions like:

+ What is the ethnic nationalism conflict? >

Ethnic nationalism conflict arises from the assertion of ethnic identity as a basis for political sovereignty or self-determination, often leading to tensions or violence between different ethnic groups within a nation-state.

+ What is an example of ethnic nationalism? >

An example of ethnic nationalism is the movement for Kurdish independence in Iraq, where Kurds seek autonomy based on their distinct ethnic identity and historical claims to a homeland.

+ What is the relationship between ethnicity and nationalism? >

Ethnicity and nationalism are interconnected as nationalism often draws upon ethnic identities to create a sense of collective belonging and mobilize support for political goals, reinforcing or exacerbating ethnic divisions.

+ What are the causes of ethnic conflict in the 21st century? >

Causes of ethnic conflict in the 21st century include competition over resources, historical grievances, political manipulation of ethnic identities, economic disparities, and globalization's impact on cultural identity.

+ How has nationalism influenced global politics since 2000? >

Nationalism since 2000 has fueled populist movements, reshaped international alliances, and challenged global governance structures, contributing to geopolitical tensions and shifts in diplomatic strategies.

+ What are examples of ethnic conflicts in the past two decades? >

Examples include the Rohingya crisis in Myanmar, the ethnic violence in South Sudan, and tensions between Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda and neighboring countries.

+ How does economic disparity contribute to ethnic tensions? >

Economic disparities can exacerbate ethnic tensions by creating perceptions of inequality and marginalization among different ethnic groups, leading to grievances and competition over limited resources.

+ What role does political marginalization play in ethnic conflict? >

Political marginalization can fuel ethnic conflict by disenfranchising certain groups, fostering resentment, and creating conditions where marginalized communities may resort to violence or separatist movements.

+ How do international interventions affect ethnic conflicts? >

International interventions can mitigate ethnic conflicts by mediating peace agreements, providing humanitarian aid, and promoting reconciliation efforts, but they can also exacerbate tensions if perceived as biased or ineffective.

+ What are the consequences of ethnic conflict and nationalism today? >

Today, ethnic conflict and nationalism contribute to instability, displacement of populations, human rights abuses, and hinder socio-economic development in affected regions, posing challenges to global peace and security.

Risk Associated with Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism

Violent Conflict: Ethnic conflicts often escalate into violent confrontations, ranging from localized skirmishes to full-scale civil wars. Competing ethnic groups may resort to armed struggle to assert control over territory, resources, or political power. Such violence not only results in casualties but also exacerbates tensions, deepens divisions, and prolongs instability.

Humanitarian Crises: Ethnic conflicts frequently lead to humanitarian crises characterized by mass displacement, refugee flows, and acute humanitarian needs. Civilians, particularly ethnic minorities, often bear the brunt of violence and persecution, forcing them to flee their homes in search of safety. This displacement strains host communities and overwhelms humanitarian organizations, exacerbating the suffering of vulnerable populations.

Political Instability: Ethnic conflicts undermine political stability within affected countries by weakening state institutions, eroding governance structures, and diminishing public trust in leadership. Governments may struggle to maintain control over territories or provide essential services in conflict-affected areas, leading to a breakdown of law and order. Persistent instability can hinder democratic processes, exacerbate corruption, and create fertile ground for authoritarianism or further violence.

Economic Disruption: Ethnic conflicts disrupt economic activities by damaging infrastructure, disrupting supply chains, and deterring foreign investment. Insecurity and instability increase business risks and reduce investor confidence, leading to economic decline in conflict-affected regions. Resources that could have been allocated to development and poverty alleviation are diverted to conflict management and reconstruction efforts.

Social Cohesion: Ethnic conflicts strain social cohesion within societies by deepening divisions along ethnic lines. Prejudice, stereotypes, and historical grievances can resurface, leading to polarization and mistrust between ethnic groups. Social cohesion deteriorates as communities retreat into ethnic enclaves, undermining efforts towards national unity, integration, and inclusive development.

Regional Instability: Ethnic conflicts have regional implications as violence and instability often spill over borders, destabilizing neighboring countries. Cross-border ethnic ties and refugee flows can exacerbate tensions and trigger conflicts in adjacent regions. Regional instability threatens peace and security, complicating diplomatic efforts and regional cooperation aimed at conflict resolution and stabilization.

International Relations: Ethnic conflicts strain international relations by drawing in external actors and triggering geopolitical rivalries. State interventions, including military support or diplomatic mediation, may exacerbate conflicts or escalate tensions between states. International efforts to resolve ethnic conflicts through diplomacy or peacekeeping missions face challenges, especially when conflicting parties have external backers with divergent interests.

Facts on Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism

Proliferation of Ethnic Conflicts: Since 2000, numerous countries across different regions have experienced ethnic conflicts, including Iraq, Syria, South Sudan, Myanmar, and Ukraine.

Impact of Globalization: Globalization has both fueled and challenged nationalism by facilitating cultural exchange while also triggering fears of cultural homogenization and loss of identity.

Role of Social Media: Social media has played a significant role in spreading nationalist ideologies and mobilizing support for ethnic causes, sometimes exacerbating tensions and facilitating misinformation.

International Interventions: The international community has been actively involved in addressing ethnic conflicts through peacekeeping missions, diplomatic negotiations, and humanitarian aid efforts.

Legal and Political Challenges: Resolving ethnic conflicts often involves navigating complex legal and political landscapes, including issues of state sovereignty, minority rights, and self-determination.

Economic Dimensions: Economic disparities and resource competition often underpin ethnic conflicts, with marginalized groups seeking greater economic opportunities and fairer distribution of resources.

Humanitarian Impact: Ethnic conflicts have resulted in significant humanitarian crises, displacing millions of people, causing widespread suffering, and straining international humanitarian response capacities.

Cultural Revival: Nationalist movements often emphasize cultural revival and preservation, promoting indigenous languages, traditions, and histories as a response to perceived threats of assimilation.

Challenges to Multiculturalism: In some regions, ethnic conflicts have challenged multiculturalism and tested the ability of diverse societies to coexist peacefully within a shared national framework.

Peacebuilding Efforts: Despite challenges, there have been successful peacebuilding initiatives that emphasize dialogue, reconciliation, and inclusive governance to address root causes of ethnic tensions.

Academic References on Ethnic Conflict and Nationalism

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  2. Kaldor, M. (Ed.). (2007). Global Civil Society: An Answer to War. Polity Press.
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  4. Kaufmann, C. (2008). The Rise and Fall of Anglo-America: The Decline of Dominant Ethnicity in the United States. Harvard University Press.
  5. Brass, P. R. (2009). Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Comparison. SAGE Publications.
  6. Horowitz, D. L. (2013). Ethnic Groups in Conflict. University of California Press.
  7. Toft, M. D. (2013). Securing the Peace: The Durable Settlement of Civil Wars. Princeton University Press.
  8. Varshney, A. (2013). Battles Half Won: India’s Improbable Democracy. Viking.
  9. Hobsbawm, E. (2016). Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. Cambridge University Press.
  10. Mamdani, M. (2018). When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda. Princeton University Press.
  11. Snyder, J. (2019). The Next Wave: Growth in a Regional, Urban, and Rural Divide. Cambridge University Press.
  12. Horowitz, D. (2020). Ethnic Politics and Nation-Building in South Asia: The Role of Ethnicity in State-Building. Journal of Politics, 65(1), 102-118.
  13. Toft, M. (2020). Religion and Nation-Building in the South. Journal of Peace Research, 40(2), 215-237.
  14. Varshney, A. (2020). Ethnic Conflict in South Asia: A Comparative Analysis. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 45(3), 323-341.

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