United Nations Peacekeeping Operations

Overview
Since its inception in 1945, the United Nations (UN) has played a crucial role in maintaining global peace and security. One of the most significant contributions of the UN in this regard has been its peacekeeping operations. These operations aim to provide stability, prevent conflict, and protect vulnerable populations in regions torn apart by war. The evolution of UN peacekeeping has been shaped by global political shifts, changing nature of conflicts, and the increasing complexity of international relations. This article by Academic Block provides a comprehensive analysis of United Nations peacekeeping operations, exploring their history, mandate, challenges, successes, and future prospects.
What is United Nations Peacekeeping?
Defining Peacekeeping
UN Peacekeeping refers to the deployment of international forces, typically composed of military, police, and civilian personnel, to conflict zones to help maintain peace and security. Unlike traditional military interventions, peacekeepers are not intended to fight wars but to create conditions for peace. Their roles may involve monitoring ceasefires, providing humanitarian assistance, facilitating elections, and protecting civilians in volatile areas.
Peacekeeping forces are generally deployed after a peace agreement is reached, but they may also intervene in situations where fighting persists or new conflicts emerge.
How Peacekeeping Works
UN peacekeepers are usually deployed after conflicts or crises have left a region in disarray. The UN provides support through military and civilian components under its peacekeeping missions, aiming to provide a neutral presence that can facilitate peace processes. These missions are generally collaborative efforts, involving contributions from various countries, often coordinated with other international organizations like the African Union or regional bodies.
The Origins of United Nations Peacekeeping
The roots of UN peacekeeping can be traced back to the end of the Second World War. The establishment of the United Nations in 1945 was a response to the catastrophic destruction wrought by the war and the need for a new international system aimed at preventing future conflicts. The UN Charter outlined the organization's primary responsibility as the maintenance of international peace and security, granting the Security Council the authority to take necessary actions.
The first peacekeeping operation occurred in 1948, in response to the ongoing conflict between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region. The UN deployed the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) to monitor the ceasefire line and ensure compliance with the agreements made by both parties. This mission laid the foundation for future peacekeeping operations.
The Evolution of Peacekeeping Operations
UN peacekeeping evolved significantly over the following decades, particularly in response to the changing dynamics of global conflicts. In the early years, peacekeeping operations were characterized by their traditional role of monitoring ceasefires, ensuring the withdrawal of forces, and creating conditions for peace negotiations. These operations were often unarmed or lightly armed, with a neutral status that allowed them to operate in volatile areas.
During the Cold War, peacekeeping efforts faced substantial limitations due to the geopolitical rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Security Council was often divided, making it difficult to deploy peacekeepers to areas where tensions were high. However, the Cold War also saw the creation of some significant missions, such as the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) in 1956, which was deployed during the Suez Crisis to supervise the ceasefire and maintain peace between Egypt, Israel, France, and the United Kingdom.
Following the Cold War, the nature of conflicts changed dramatically. Civil wars, ethnic conflicts, and intra-state violence became more common, often involving non-state actors and widespread human rights violations. This new type of warfare posed new challenges for the UN and its peacekeeping efforts. To address these changes, the UN expanded its peacekeeping mandate beyond traditional peace enforcement to include tasks such as humanitarian aid, disarmament, and the protection of civilians.
The Mandates of UN Peacekeeping Operations
The mandates of UN peacekeeping operations have evolved significantly over time. Initially, peacekeepers were deployed with limited tasks, such as monitoring ceasefires and ensuring the withdrawal of forces. Over the years, however, these mandates have become more comprehensive and multifaceted. The modern concept of peacekeeping often includes a range of activities aimed at not only maintaining peace but also addressing the root causes of conflict and promoting long-term stability.
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Monitoring Ceasefires and Preventing Escalation : One of the primary tasks of traditional peacekeeping missions is the monitoring of ceasefire agreements between warring parties. Peacekeepers are deployed to ensure that the parties involved in a conflict adhere to the terms of the ceasefire and do not engage in further hostilities. This function was central to the early success of missions such as UNMOGIP and the United Nations Emergency Force during the Suez Crisis.
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Protection of Civilians : In recent decades, the protection of civilians has become a critical aspect of peacekeeping operations. In many modern conflicts, non-combatants are often the primary victims, suffering from violence, displacement, and human rights abuses. The UN has taken steps to incorporate the protection of civilians into its peacekeeping mandates, deploying peacekeepers to safeguard vulnerable populations from violence and ensure the delivery of humanitarian assistance.
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Disarmament and Demobilization : Disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) programs have become an essential component of UN peacekeeping operations. These programs focus on the disarmament of combatants, their reintegration into society, and the dismantling of illegal arms trade networks. DDR efforts aim to reduce the risk of renewed violence and promote stability in post-conflict societies.
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Support for Political Processes : Peacekeeping missions also provide support for political transitions and peacebuilding efforts. In many post-conflict countries, the establishment of democratic governance, the promotion of human rights, and the rebuilding of state institutions are critical to ensuring long-term stability. UN peacekeepers often help create the conditions necessary for political dialogue, elections, and reconciliation between opposing groups.
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Humanitarian Assistance and Reconstruction : In the aftermath of a conflict, the UN is frequently called upon to assist in the reconstruction of war-torn societies. This includes providing humanitarian aid, rebuilding infrastructure, and supporting the return of displaced persons. Peacekeepers may also help facilitate the delivery of aid and ensure the safe return of refugees to their home regions.
The Structure of UN Peacekeeping
United Nations peacekeeping operations are structured through a coordinated framework led by various UN bodies, primarily the United Nations Department of Peace Operations (DPO). The DPO is responsible for planning, managing, and overseeing all peacekeeping missions. It works in close collaboration with the UN Security Council, which authorizes the mandates and funding for these missions.
The UN Security Council plays a critical role in setting operational directives and ensuring the maintenance of peace and security in conflict areas. The Council establishes the rules of engagement for peacekeepers and approves the size, scope, and objectives of each mission. The Council's authority is backed by its permanent members who hold veto power, influencing the peacekeeping decisions.
Contributions from Member States are crucial to the operations of peacekeeping missions. Countries volunteer to provide personnel, financial resources, and equipment for missions. Troops, police officers, and civilian experts come from member states, and these countries also fund peacekeeping efforts through financial assessments. Notably, the largest troop contributors are countries like India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, while funding is primarily supported by major UN member states.
Peacekeeping forces often interact with other UN entities. For instance, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) provides humanitarian support to refugees, while the UN Development Programme (UNDP) helps in rebuilding war-torn economies. Coordination between these agencies ensures that peacekeepers' efforts are complemented by development, humanitarian aid, and human rights protection.
In addition, missions can also benefit from the expertise of regional organizations, which may assist in logistical, financial, or operational support, particularly when peacekeeping activities are aligned with regional peace and security efforts.
This multi-layered structure ensures that peacekeeping missions are effectively carried out, addressing not only security concerns but also broader humanitarian and developmental goals.
Key Case Studies of United Nations Peacekeeping
Rwanda (1994): The Failure to Prevent Genocide
The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) was established in 1993 to help implement the Arusha Accords, a peace agreement between Rwanda’s warring ethnic groups. However, when the genocide began in 1994, the peacekeepers, who were primarily tasked with monitoring the peace agreement, were insufficiently equipped and lacked a mandate to intervene militarily.
The UN’s failure to respond effectively to the genocide is one of the darkest chapters in peacekeeping history. Despite the presence of peacekeepers on the ground, the international community failed to act quickly enough to prevent the massacre of over 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The lessons learned from this tragic failure have since shaped discussions around the need for stronger mandates and more robust peacekeeping capabilities.
Somalia (1992-1995): The Complexities of Humanitarian Intervention
The situation in Somalia during the early 1990s required the UN to intervene with a dual mandate—humanitarian assistance and peace enforcement. Initially, UNOSOM I was deployed to provide aid during a famine exacerbated by civil war. However, as the conflict intensified, UNOSOM II was established, and the mission evolved into a more complex operation involving military action to restore order.
The mission’s failure in Somalia, particularly the infamous "Black Hawk Down" incident, where 18 U.S. soldiers were killed in a firefight, demonstrated the challenges of peacekeeping in a highly volatile environment. It also highlighted the dangers of mission creep, where peacekeeping operations expanded beyond their original objectives without adequate preparation.
Congo (MONUC/MONUSCO): A Long-Term Peacekeeping Commitment
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has been the site of one of the longest-running peacekeeping operations, starting with MONUC in 1999 and evolving into MONUSCO in 2010. The mission was tasked with monitoring peace agreements, assisting with elections, and stabilizing a country ravaged by years of civil war and instability.
Despite some successes, including overseeing elections and providing humanitarian aid, MONUSCO faced numerous challenges. The persistent presence of armed groups and the complexity of local dynamics made it difficult for peacekeepers to protect civilians effectively. The mission’s longevity underscores the challenges of rebuilding a country plagued by deep-seated political, social, and economic issues.
East Timor (1999-2002): A Success Story of Peacekeeping
In contrast to the aforementioned failures, East Timor’s experience with UN peacekeeping is often hailed as a success. After a violent referendum in 1999 that saw East Timor vote for independence from Indonesia, the UN deployed UNTAET (United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor) to help stabilize the country and guide it through the transition to independence.
The success of the East Timor mission can be attributed to a clear mandate, effective coordination among international actors, and the support of the local population. By 2002, East Timor had become an independent nation, and the mission was considered one of the most successful peacekeeping efforts in the UN’s history.
Challenges Faced by UN Peacekeeping Operations
Despite notable successes, UN peacekeeping missions face several persistent challenges that hinder their effectiveness.
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Lack of Resources : Insufficient funding and logistical support often undermine peacekeeping operations. Many missions rely on a small group of contributing countries, leading to budget deficits and shortages in personnel and equipment. This limits their ability to achieve objectives and sometimes forces missions to scale back operations.
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Political and Strategic Divisions : The UN Security Council’s political fragmentation can impede peacekeeping efforts. The five permanent members (the US, Russia, China, France, and the UK) possess veto power, which can block mission deployments or restrict their scope, resulting in delays and inadequate responses to crises.
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Hostile Environments : Peacekeepers are deployed in volatile and dangerous regions where non-state actors and armed groups often target them. These hostile environments challenge their neutrality, safety, and effectiveness, making it difficult to protect civilians and fulfill their mandates.
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Complexity of Modern Conflicts : Modern conflicts often involve non-state actors and irregular warfare, complicating peacekeeping operations. Unlike traditional peacekeeping, which relied on the consent of all parties, today’s conflicts may lack clear frontlines or recognized legitimacy, requiring peacekeepers to navigate complex and fluid situations.
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Accountability and Human Rights Violations : Allegations of sexual exploitation, abuse, and misconduct by peacekeepers have tarnished the reputation of UN operations. Despite efforts to improve oversight and training, accountability remains inconsistent, and the lack of adequate punishment for offenders undermines the credibility of peacekeeping missions.
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Financial Constraints and Resource Shortages : Chronic underfunding affects the operational capacity of peacekeeping missions. Shortages in equipment, manpower, and logistical support hinder the successful completion of missions, leaving critical tasks unaddressed and compromising the overall effectiveness of peacekeeping operations.
Successes of UN Peacekeeping Operations
Despite the challenges, UN peacekeeping operations have achieved notable successes in various parts of the world. One of the most significant successes of UN peacekeeping was the 1990-1991 mission in Namibia, which helped the country transition from apartheid to a democratic system of government. The successful deployment of peacekeepers, along with the efforts of the UN, facilitated free and fair elections and contributed to the establishment of a new government.
In East Timor, the UN peacekeeping mission played a crucial role in the country’s independence from Indonesia. Following a violent campaign by pro-Indonesian militias, the UN deployed peacekeepers to restore order, facilitate a referendum for independence, and oversee the reconstruction of the country’s infrastructure.
The UN’s role in the Balkans during the 1990s was another significant achievement. The UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina to monitor ceasefire agreements and provide humanitarian assistance during the Bosnian War. While the mission faced criticism for its inability to prevent atrocities such as the Srebrenica massacre, it ultimately helped stabilize the region and lay the groundwork for a lasting peace agreement.
The Future of United Nations Peacekeeping
Technological Innovations and Their Role in Peacekeeping
As technology advances, peacekeeping operations have begun to incorporate more sophisticated tools, such as surveillance drones, satellite imagery, and enhanced communication systems. These technological innovations help peacekeepers operate more efficiently, improve monitoring capabilities, and enhance security for both peacekeepers and civilians.
The Role of Gender in Peacekeeping
Another critical aspect of the future of peacekeeping is gender inclusivity. The UN has increasingly focused on the role of women in peacekeeping operations, both in terms of protecting women in conflict zones and in the active participation of women as peacekeepers. Studies have shown that the inclusion of women in peacekeeping missions improves effectiveness, particularly in the areas of community engagement and protection.
Post-Conflict Reconstruction and Nation-Building
Peacekeeping is not just about maintaining order during conflict; it also involves post-conflict reconstruction. The UN’s role in rebuilding infrastructure, facilitating the creation of functioning governments, and promoting the rule of law is vital for the long-term success of peacekeeping missions. Post-conflict reconstruction efforts must be well-coordinated, multi-faceted, and sustainable to ensure long-lasting peace.
Final Words
United Nations peacekeeping operations have played a pivotal role in maintaining peace and security around the world. Despite facing significant challenges, the UN’s peacekeeping efforts have contributed to the resolution of numerous conflicts and the protection of civilians in volatile regions. As the nature of global conflicts continues to evolve, the UN must adapt its peacekeeping strategies to remain relevant and effective. With continued reforms, greater cooperation with regional organizations, and a renewed focus on preventive diplomacy, UN peacekeeping operations can continue to play a vital role in fostering global peace and stability. We hope this article by the Academic Block provides valuable insights and contributes meaningfully to your understanding. Please feel free to share your comments and feedback. Thank you for reading!
This Article will answer your questions like:
UN peacekeeping operations are deployed to maintain peace and security in conflict-affected areas. They aim to provide a stable environment, facilitate the implementation of peace agreements, and protect civilians. Peacekeepers monitor ceasefires, assist in disarmament, support humanitarian efforts, and help build local governance structures. The presence of peacekeeping forces can deter violence and create conditions for political dialogue, thus fostering long-term stability and reconstruction in post-conflict regions. These missions often involve military personnel, police, and civilian experts working together to support peace efforts and ensure the safety of vulnerable populations.
The main objectives of UN peacekeeping operations include maintaining ceasefires, protecting civilians, supporting the delivery of humanitarian assistance, and facilitating political processes. Peacekeeping missions aim to prevent the resurgence of violence and create conditions for sustainable peace. They also work towards disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration of former combatants, as well as strengthening local institutions and governance. By fostering trust among conflicting parties and promoting dialogue, UN peacekeeping operations strive to establish a stable environment conducive to post-conflict recovery and development, ultimately contributing to global peace and security.
United Nations peacekeeping operations began in response to the challenges of maintaining peace after World War II. The first mission, the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), was established in 1948 to monitor the ceasefire in the Arab-Israeli conflict. The concept of peacekeeping evolved during the Suez Crisis in 1956, when UN peacekeepers were deployed to supervise the withdrawal of invading forces. This marked the formal establishment of peacekeeping as a UN function, leading to a series of missions aimed at preventing conflicts and stabilizing post-conflict situations in various regions around the world.
Successful UN peacekeeping missions include the United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (UNOCI), which helped stabilize the country post-civil war and facilitated democratic elections. The United Nations Transitional Authority in East Timor (UNTAET) effectively oversaw East Timor's transition to independence after years of conflict, promoting peace and rebuilding institutions. The United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) has maintained a buffer zone for decades, preventing hostilities between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. These missions exemplify how UN peacekeepers can foster stability, promote dialogue, and support post-conflict recovery in challenging environments.
UN peacekeeping operations face numerous challenges, including insufficient funding, complex political dynamics, and threats to the safety of peacekeepers. Often, missions are deployed in volatile environments with ongoing violence, making it difficult to maintain stability and protect civilians. Additionally, conflicting mandates from member states can hinder operational effectiveness. Cultural differences and communication barriers can further complicate interactions with local populations. Moreover, the evolving nature of conflict, including asymmetric warfare and terrorism, requires peacekeeping missions to adapt rapidly. These challenges necessitate robust support and cooperation from the international community to enhance mission effectiveness.
Since the 1950s, UN peacekeeping has evolved significantly in response to changing global dynamics and the nature of conflicts. Initially focused on traditional peacekeeping, characterized by the monitoring of ceasefires between state actors, missions have increasingly adapted to address complex intra-state conflicts and multifaceted crises. This evolution includes the incorporation of multidimensional mandates that encompass civilian protection, disarmament, and support for democratic governance. Moreover, peacekeeping operations now often involve comprehensive partnerships with regional organizations and NGOs. The growing emphasis on robust mandates and the need for peacebuilding efforts reflect the challenges of ensuring lasting peace in contemporary conflicts.
The key principles guiding UN peacekeeping missions are consent of the parties, impartiality, and the non-use of force except in self-defense and defense of the mandate. Consent ensures that peacekeeping operations are authorized by the host nation and accepted by conflicting parties. Impartiality mandates that peacekeepers do not take sides or favor any group in a conflict, promoting trust and facilitating dialogue. The restriction on the use of force emphasizes that peacekeepers are primarily there to maintain peace, not to engage in combat. Adherence to these principles is crucial for the legitimacy and effectiveness of UN peacekeeping operations.
UN peacekeeping operations are primarily funded through assessments on UN member states based on their gross national income. This funding structure ensures that financial contributions reflect each country's economic capacity. Additional resources may come from voluntary contributions, but these are typically supplemental. The funding covers operational costs, personnel salaries, equipment, and logistics for missions. Despite these arrangements, funding shortages can impact mission effectiveness and lead to delays in deployment or operational limitations. The need for timely and adequate funding remains a critical aspect of ensuring the success and sustainability of UN peacekeeping operations.
The United Nations Department for Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) is responsible for the planning, management, and support of UN peacekeeping missions. Established in 1992, the DPKO works to ensure that peacekeeping operations are conducted effectively and in line with UN principles. It provides strategic guidance, training, and resources to field missions and coordinates efforts with other UN entities, regional organizations, and non-governmental organizations. The DPKO also engages in capacity-building initiatives, policy development, and the promotion of best practices in peacekeeping. Its overarching goal is to enhance the effectiveness of UN efforts to maintain international peace and security.
As of now, there are 12 active UN peacekeeping operations worldwide. These missions are deployed in various regions, including Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, with mandates tailored to address specific conflicts and challenges. Each operation operates under the principles of consent, impartiality, and non-use of force, working to maintain peace, protect civilians, and support political processes. The number and nature of peacekeeping missions can change based on emerging conflicts and the evolving international landscape, necessitating adaptability and responsiveness from the United Nations to ensure effective peacekeeping efforts.
Controversies related to United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Sexual Exploitation and Abuse: Numerous allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse by UN peacekeepers have surfaced, particularly in missions in the Central African Republic, Haiti, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. These incidents have severely tarnished the reputation of UN peacekeeping and highlighted the need for stringent accountability mechanisms.
Failure to Prevent Genocide in Rwanda: In 1994, the UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) failed to prevent the genocide that resulted in the deaths of approximately 800,000 people. The mission’s lack of mandate, resources, and support from the international community were major factors in its inability to act effectively.
Srebrenica Massacre: The UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR) failed to protect the safe area of Srebrenica in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1995, leading to the massacre of over 8,000 Bosnian Muslim men and boys by Bosnian Serb forces. This failure highlighted significant weaknesses in the operational capacity and mandate of UN peacekeepers.
Inadequate Response in Somalia: The UN Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM I and II) faced significant challenges in the early 1990s. The missions were criticized for their inability to maintain security and facilitate humanitarian aid, culminating in the infamous “Black Hawk Down” incident and the subsequent withdrawal of UN forces.
Sexual Abuse Scandals in Haiti: UN peacekeepers in Haiti have been accused of numerous instances of sexual exploitation and abuse, including a high-profile case involving a “peacekeeper baby” scandal where peacekeepers fathered children with local women, often under coercive circumstances.
Cholera Outbreak in Haiti: In 2010, UN peacekeepers from Nepal were linked to a cholera outbreak in Haiti that killed over 10,000 people. The UN initially denied responsibility, but later admitted its role in the outbreak, leading to widespread criticism and demands for compensation.
Abuses in the Central African Republic: Peacekeepers in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA) have faced numerous allegations of sexual abuse, including incidents involving minors. These abuses have prompted investigations and calls for greater accountability and oversight.
Ineffectiveness in Darfur: The African Union/United Nations Hybrid operation in Darfur (UNAMID) has been criticized for its inability to effectively protect civilians and address the humanitarian crisis in the region. Issues such as lack of resources, bureaucratic delays, and obstruction by the Sudanese government have hampered its efforts.
Resource Constraints and Funding Issues: Many UN peacekeeping missions operate with insufficient resources and funding, which affects their ability to effectively carry out their mandates. This has led to criticisms about the UN’s reliance on voluntary contributions from member states and the impact of budget cuts on operational effectiveness.
Troop Conduct and Discipline: Variability in the quality, training, and discipline of troops contributed by different member states has led to issues in mission performance and conduct. Incidents of indiscipline, lack of professionalism, and misconduct have raised questions about the standards and preparedness of peacekeepers.
Facts on United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
Origins: The first UN peacekeeping mission, UNTSO, was established in 1948 to monitor ceasefires in the Middle East, marking the beginning of UN involvement in peace operations.
Suez Crisis: The deployment of UNEF in 1956 during the Suez Crisis marked the first armed peacekeeping mission, demonstrating the UN’s willingness to use force to maintain peace.
Scope: Over 70 peacekeeping operations have been authorized by the UN since 1950, involving diverse regions and conflicts worldwide.
Personnel: Currently, there are approximately 87,000 personnel (military, police, and civilian) from over 120 countries serving in UN peacekeeping missions.
Budget: The annual budget for UN peacekeeping operations is approximately $6.5 billion, funded by contributions from member states.
Mandates: UN peacekeeping missions operate under mandates from the UN Security Council, which outline their specific objectives, including maintaining peace, protecting civilians, and supporting political processes.
Multidimensional Operations: Modern peacekeeping missions often include tasks such as political mediation, human rights promotion, and support for governance and rule of law.
Challenges: Peacekeeping missions face challenges such as resource constraints, logistical difficulties, and complex political environments, which can impact their effectiveness.
Controversies: UN peacekeeping has been marred by controversies including allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse, failures to prevent genocides (e.g., Rwanda), and incidents of misconduct by peacekeepers.
Reforms: Efforts to improve peacekeeping include the “Action for Peacekeeping” (A4P) initiative launched in 2018, which aims to strengthen peacekeeping through better performance, safety, and impact.
Academic References on United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
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