Cuban Revolution: Rise of a Nation
Overview
The Cuban Revolution of 1959 stands as one of the most significant events in the history of Latin America and the broader global landscape. Led by the charismatic revolutionary figure Fidel Castro, the revolution transformed Cuba from a corrupt dictatorship under Fulgencio Batista into a socialist state aligned with the Soviet Union. The repercussions of the Cuban Revolution were profound, not only reshaping the political and social fabric of Cuba but also altering the dynamics of the Cold War and the balance of power in the Western Hemisphere. This article by Academic Block explores the origins, key players, events, and consequences of the Cuban Revolution, highlighting its impact on Cuba, the United States, and the broader international community.
Background: Pre-Revolutionary Cuba
To understand the Cuban Revolution, it’s essential to examine the socio-political conditions prevailing in Cuba before 1959. Throughout much of the 20th century, Cuba was under the authoritarian rule of various leaders, notably Fulgencio Batista, who seized power through a military coup in 1952. Batista’s regime was characterized by corruption, economic inequality, and political repression. While a small elite prospered, the majority of Cubans lived in poverty, with limited access to education, healthcare, and basic necessities.
Batista’s government maintained close ties with the United States, particularly in terms of economic interests, with American corporations controlling significant sectors of the Cuban economy, including sugar production and tourism. This relationship fueled resentment among many Cubans, who viewed the Batista regime as a puppet of American imperialism. Dissatisfaction with Batista’s rule created fertile ground for revolutionary movements seeking to overthrow the existing order and establish a more just and equitable society.
Origins of the Revolution: Fidel Castro and the 26th of July Movement
Fidel Castro emerged as the central figure in the Cuban Revolution, leading a disparate group of rebels against the Batista regime. Born into a middle-class family in eastern Cuba, Castro was a lawyer by training and a fervent nationalist who harbored deep-seated grievances against Batista’s dictatorship. In 1953, he launched a failed attack on the Moncada Barracks in Santiago de Cuba, an event that marked the beginning of his revolutionary journey. Despite being captured and imprisoned, Castro’s trial and subsequent manifesto, “History Will Absolve Me,” catapulted him to national prominence as a symbol of resistance against Batista’s tyranny.
Following his release from prison in 1955, Castro went into exile in Mexico, where he began organizing a revolutionary movement aimed at toppling Batista’s regime. It was during this time that he formed the 26th of July Movement, named after the date of the failed Moncada Barracks assault. The movement comprised a diverse coalition of students, intellectuals, peasants, and urban workers united by their opposition to Batista and their desire for social justice and political reform.
The Revolution Unfolds: Guerrilla Warfare and Popular Support
In December 1956, Castro and a band of around 80 revolutionaries, including iconic figures such as Ernesto “Che” Guevara, landed in Cuba aboard the yacht Granma, intending to spark an insurrection against the Batista regime. However, their initial foray into armed struggle ended in disaster, with the rebels ambushed by government forces soon after landing. Despite suffering heavy casualties and being forced to retreat into the Sierra Maestra mountains, Castro and his followers regrouped and launched a guerrilla campaign against Batista’s army.
Over the next two years, Castro’s guerrillas waged a relentless insurgency, winning over local peasants and gaining support from segments of the urban population disillusioned with Batista’s rule. Their tactics combined military prowess with political mobilization, as they established a parallel government in the areas under their control, implementing land reforms, literacy programs, and healthcare initiatives. The rebels’ ability to provide tangible benefits to the Cuban people, coupled with their nationalist rhetoric and anti-imperialist stance, resonated deeply with many who yearned for change.
The Fall of Batista: Triumph of the Revolution
By late 1958, Batista’s grip on power was weakening, as his regime faced mounting internal dissent and international isolation. The United States, while initially supportive of Batista, grew increasingly wary of his inability to quell the rebellion and the negative publicity surrounding his regime’s human rights abuses. Moreover, Castro’s guerrillas scored a series of strategic victories, culminating in the Battle of Santa Clara in December 1958, where Che Guevara’s forces captured the city, effectively cutting off Batista’s retreat.
Realizing the futility of his position, Batista fled Cuba on January 1, 1959, marking the end of his regime and the triumph of the Cuban Revolution. Castro and his followers marched triumphantly into Havana, greeted by throngs of jubilant supporters celebrating the dawn of a new era in Cuban history. The revolutionaries wasted no time in consolidating their power, dismantling the remnants of the old regime and embarking on a program of radical transformation aimed at restructuring Cuban society along socialist lines.
Building the Revolution: Socialism and Soviet Alliance
With the establishment of the revolutionary government, led by Fidel Castro as Prime Minister, Cuba embarked on a rapid process of social, economic, and political transformation. The agrarian reform law, enacted in May 1959, expropriated large landholdings owned by foreign corporations and wealthy Cuban elites, redistributing the land to landless peasants and tenant farmers. This measure aimed to address the longstanding inequalities in land ownership and empower the rural poor, who constituted a significant portion of the Cuban population.
Alongside agrarian reform, the revolutionary government implemented measures to nationalize key industries, including sugar, banking, and utilities, effectively bringing the commanding heights of the economy under state control. These policies were inspired by socialist principles of collective ownership and centralized planning, with the goal of reducing dependence on foreign capital and promoting self-sufficiency and economic development. The nationalization of American-owned assets, however, strained Cuba’s relations with the United States, leading to escalating tensions between the two countries.
Central to Castro’s vision of socialism in Cuba was the establishment of a one-party state dominated by the Communist Party, which served as the vanguard of the revolution and the arbiter of political power. The Communist Party, under Castro’s leadership, sought to institutionalize the revolution and suppress dissent, viewing any opposition as counterrevolutionary and serving the interests of imperialism. Political pluralism and freedom of expression were severely curtailed, as the revolutionary government moved to consolidate its control over all aspects of Cuban society.
The Cold War Context: Soviet-Cuban Alliance
The emergence of a socialist Cuba in the midst of the Cold War geopolitical rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union had profound implications for the balance of power in the Western Hemisphere. The United States, viewing Cuba’s socialist experiment as a direct threat to its interests in the region, sought to undermine the Castro government through economic, diplomatic, and covert means. In response, Castro turned to the Soviet Union for support, forging a strategic alliance that would shape the course of Cuban and international politics for decades to come.
The Soviet-Cuban alliance, formalized through economic and military agreements, provided Cuba with crucial aid, including financial assistance, technical expertise, and military hardware. The Soviet Union became Cuba’s primary trading partner and source of economic support, helping to offset the economic embargo imposed by the United States and bolstering Cuba’s ability to resist external pressure. In return, Cuba offered strategic advantages to the Soviet Union, including a foothold in the Western Hemisphere and a potential ally capable of challenging American hegemony in Latin America.
The Cuban Missile Crisis: Brinkmanship and Diplomatic Crisis
The height of tensions between the United States and Cuba came in October 1962 during the Cuban Missile Crisis, arguably the closest the world has come to nuclear war. The crisis was precipitated by the discovery of Soviet ballistic missiles deployed in Cuba, capable of striking targets in the United States with nuclear warheads. President John F. Kennedy demanded the immediate removal of the missiles and imposed a naval blockade, setting the stage for a tense standoff between the two superpowers.
For thirteen harrowing days, the world teetered on the brink of nuclear catastrophe, as diplomatic negotiations faltered and military forces remained on high alert. Behind the scenes, intense backchannel communication between Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev helped defuse the crisis and avert a direct confrontation. In the end, Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the missiles in exchange for Kennedy’s pledge not to invade Cuba and a secret agreement to remove American Jupiter missiles from Turkey.
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a watershed moment in Cold War history, underscoring the dangers of nuclear brinkmanship and the imperative of diplomatic solutions to prevent catastrophic conflict. While the crisis ended without nuclear war, it left a lasting impact on US-Cuban relations and highlighted the vulnerability of small states caught in the crossfire of superpower rivalry.
The Bay of Pigs Invasion: Failed Coup Attempt
Prior to the Cuban Missile Crisis, the United States had attempted to overthrow Castro’s government through covert means, culminating in the ill-fated Bay of Pigs invasion in April 1961. Conceived during the Eisenhower administration and executed under Kennedy, the invasion was carried out by a force of Cuban exiles trained and equipped by the CIA with the aim of triggering a popular uprising against Castro. However, the operation was plagued by poor planning, logistical failures, and lack of popular support, resulting in a disastrous defeat for the invaders within days.
The Bay of Pigs invasion was a humiliating setback for the United States, exposing the limits of its ability to impose regime change through covert action. It also served to galvanize support for Castro’s government, rallying Cubans around the revolutionary leadership in the face of external aggression. For Castro, the failed invasion reinforced his commitment to socialism and his reliance on the Soviet Union for protection against further US aggression.
Domestic Challenges and Social Transformations
Despite the initial euphoria surrounding the revolution, Cuba faced numerous challenges in the years that followed, including economic stagnation, social unrest, and political repression. The abrupt transition to socialism disrupted existing social and economic structures, leading to widespread dislocation and resistance from entrenched interests. The exodus of skilled professionals and entrepreneurs, coupled with the US embargo and the collapse of sugar prices, exacerbated Cuba’s economic woes, plunging the country into dependency on Soviet aid.
Castro’s regime responded to dissent with a heavy hand, silencing critics and dissenters through censorship, imprisonment, and forced labor camps. The Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDRs) were established to monitor and report on the activities of suspected counterrevolutionaries, fostering a climate of fear and suspicion within Cuban society. While the revolution succeeded in eliminating many social injustices, it also created new hierarchies and inequalities, particularly along political lines, as party loyalists and government officials enjoyed privileges denied to the majority of Cubans.
At the same time, the revolution brought significant improvements in social welfare, healthcare, and education, transforming Cuba into a model of development for the Global South. The establishment of a comprehensive healthcare system, with free access to medical care for all citizens, dramatically improved health outcomes and life expectancy rates, earning international acclaim for Cuba’s achievements in public health. Similarly, the emphasis on universal education and literacy campaigns eradicated illiteracy and expanded educational opportunities for millions of Cubans, laying the foundation for a more equitable and educated society.
Cuba in the Post-Soviet Era: Challenges and Continuities
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 dealt a severe blow to Cuba’s economy and political stability, as the loss of Soviet aid and trade plunged the country into a deep economic crisis known as the “Special Period.” The sudden withdrawal of Soviet support exposed the vulnerabilities of Cuba’s socialist model, forcing the government to implement austerity measures and seek alternative sources of income and investment. The legalization of limited private enterprise and the promotion of tourism helped alleviate some of the economic hardships, but Cuba’s dependence on foreign capital and remittances remained a persistent challenge.
Despite the end of the Cold War and the demise of Soviet communism, Cuba maintained its socialist system and defiance of US hegemony, reaffirming its commitment to revolutionary ideals and international solidarity. Fidel Castro’s retirement from active politics in 2008 and his eventual death in 2016 marked the end of an era, but his legacy endured in the resilience of the Cuban people and the enduring symbol of Cuban socialism. The thaw in US-Cuban relations under the Obama administration and the restoration of diplomatic ties in 2015 offered hope for a new chapter in US-Cuban relations, but the resurgence of hardline policies under the Trump administration and the continued embargo underscored the persistence of old animosities and the challenges of reconciliation.
Final Words
The Cuban Revolution of 1959 remains a contested and polarizing event, revered by some as a triumph of social justice and national sovereignty, and reviled by others as a betrayal of democratic ideals and human rights. Regardless of one’s perspective, the revolution undeniably transformed Cuba and reshaped the dynamics of the Cold War, bringing socialist revolution to the doorstep of the United States and challenging the hegemony of American imperialism in Latin America. Fidel Castro’s vision of a socialist Cuba inspired revolutionaries around the world and left an indelible mark on the history of the 20th century, reminding us of the enduring power of revolutionary ideals and the complexities of political change. Hope you enjoyed reading with Academic Block. Before leaving, please provide your valuable thoughts to make this article better. Thanks for reading!
This Article will answer your questions like:
The Cuban Revolution was a revolutionary movement led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara that overthrew the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1959, establishing a socialist government in Cuba.
The Cuban Revolution involved armed struggle, rural insurgency, and political maneuvers that culminated in the overthrow of Batista, leading to significant social, economic, and political changes in Cuba.
Fidel Castro emerged as the primary leader of the Cuban Revolution, alongside other key figures like Che Guevara, leading the movement to overthrow Batista and implement socialist reforms.
Yes, Che Guevara played a crucial role in the Cuban Revolution as a guerrilla leader and military strategist, supporting Fidel Castro in overthrowing Batista and later becoming a key figure in Cuba's revolutionary government.
Fidel Castro led the Cuban Revolution, organizing resistance against Batista's regime, advocating for social justice, land reforms, and nationalizing industries to reduce U.S. influence and establish a socialist state.
The Cuban Revolution was fueled by grievances against Batista's dictatorship, inequality, corruption, and U.S. dominance in Cuba's economy and politics, prompting calls for social justice, agrarian reforms, and national sovereignty.
Key figures in the Cuban Revolution included Fidel Castro, Che Guevara, Camilo Cienfuegos, and other guerrilla leaders who played pivotal roles in overthrowing Batista and shaping Cuba's revolutionary government.
The goals of the Cuban Revolution included overthrowing Batista's dictatorship, achieving social justice, implementing agrarian reforms, nationalizing industries, and reducing U.S. influence in Cuba's affairs.
The Cuban Revolution inspired leftist movements across Latin America, influencing politics, social reforms, and anti-imperialist sentiments in the region, challenging U.S. hegemony and shaping Cold War dynamics.
The Bay of Pigs invasion was a failed U.S.-backed attempt in 1961 to overthrow Castro's government, highlighting Cold War tensions and solidifying Cuba's anti-imperialist stance and alignment with the Soviet Union.
The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 was a nuclear standoff between the U.S., USSR, and Cuba over Soviet missile deployment in Cuba, directly linked to Cuba's role as a Cold War proxy and Castro's alliance with the Soviet Union.
Controversies related to Cuban Revolution
Land Reform and Nationalization: One of the earliest and most contentious measures enacted by the revolutionary government was agrarian reform, which involved the expropriation of large landholdings owned by foreign corporations and wealthy Cuban elites. While supporters hailed this as a step towards social justice and economic equality, critics argued that it undermined property rights and discouraged foreign investment, leading to tensions with the United States and other Western powers.
Political Repression and Human Rights Violations: The Castro regime’s crackdown on dissent and political opposition generated widespread controversy and condemnation, both within Cuba and internationally. The suppression of free speech, press censorship, and imprisonment of political dissidents raised concerns about the erosion of civil liberties and human rights under the guise of revolutionary zeal. The establishment of labor camps and the execution of suspected counterrevolutionaries further fueled allegations of authoritarianism and abuse of power.
Alignment with the Soviet Union: Cuba’s close alliance with the Soviet Union and its adoption of socialist policies drew condemnation from the United States and other Western nations, who viewed Cuba as a pawn of Soviet communism and a threat to hemispheric stability. The presence of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis heightened tensions between the superpowers and brought the world to the brink of nuclear war, underscoring the risks posed by Cold War rivalries in the Western Hemisphere.
Exodus of Cuban Refugees: The Cuban Revolution prompted a mass exodus of Cubans, particularly those opposed to the revolutionary government, who fled the country in search of political asylum and economic opportunity elsewhere. The United States became a primary destination for Cuban refugees, leading to tensions between the two countries and the eventual implementation of the Cuban Adjustment Act, which granted preferential treatment to Cuban immigrants.
Economic Embargo and Isolation: The United States responded to the Cuban Revolution and the nationalization of American-owned assets by imposing a comprehensive economic embargo on Cuba, which remains in place to this day. The embargo has had far-reaching consequences for the Cuban economy, exacerbating shortages of essential goods and hindering economic development. Critics argue that the embargo has failed to achieve its stated objectives and has instead served to entrench the Castro regime and isolate Cuba from the international community.
Legacy of the Revolution: The legacy of the Cuban Revolution continues to be a subject of debate and controversy, both within Cuba and abroad. Supporters laud the revolution for its achievements in healthcare, education, and social welfare, as well as its defiance of US imperialism and promotion of Third World solidarity. Critics, however, point to the erosion of civil liberties, economic stagnation, and human rights abuses under Castro’s rule, arguing that the revolution failed to deliver on its promises of democracy and prosperity.
Impact of the Cuban Revolution
Strategic Challenge to the United States: The establishment of a socialist state in Cuba, aligned with the Soviet Union, posed a direct challenge to the dominance of the United States in the Western Hemisphere. Cuba’s proximity to the US mainland and its strategic significance heightened concerns in Washington about the spread of communism in the region.
Shift in Cold War Dynamics: The Cuban Revolution shifted the dynamics of the Cold War, bringing the conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union to the doorstep of the Americas. Cuba became a focal point of East-West rivalry, with the United States and the Soviet Union competing for influence and control over the island nation.
Crisis Points: Cuban Missile Crisis: The presence of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 brought the world to the brink of nuclear war. The crisis highlighted the extent of Soviet influence in Cuba and underscored the potential consequences of superpower confrontation in the Western Hemisphere.
Economic and Military Support: The Soviet Union provided Cuba with significant economic and military support, bolstering the revolutionary government’s ability to withstand pressure from the United States. This support included financial aid, favorable trade agreements, military equipment, and technical assistance, helping to sustain Cuba’s socialist experiment despite external opposition.
Domino Effect in Latin America: The success of the Cuban Revolution inspired leftist movements and revolutionary struggles throughout Latin America, contributing to a wave of anti-imperialist sentiment across the region. Cuba served as a model for other countries seeking to challenge US hegemony and pursue socialist transformation.
US-Cuba Relations: The Cuban Revolution strained relations between Cuba and the United States, leading to the imposition of a comprehensive economic embargo by the US government. The embargo, which remains in place to this day, has had profound economic, social, and political consequences for Cuba, exacerbating the island nation’s isolation and contributing to its reliance on Soviet and later Russian support.
Ideological Polarization: The Cuban Revolution deepened ideological polarization in the Western Hemisphere, with Cuba emerging as a symbol of socialist defiance against capitalist imperialism. The revolutionaries’ commitment to socialist principles and anti-imperialist rhetoric resonated with oppressed populations in Latin America and beyond, fueling aspirations for radical change and national liberation.
Legacy of Soviet Influence: Despite the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent decline in Russian support for Cuba, the legacy of Soviet influence in the Western Hemisphere endures. Cuba’s alignment with the Soviet bloc during the Cold War left a lasting imprint on the country’s political, economic, and cultural landscape, shaping its identity as a socialist state and a symbol of resistance against imperialism.
Facts on the Cuban Revolution
Establishment of Socialist State: Following the success of the revolution, Fidel Castro established a socialist state in Cuba, with the goal of transforming the country’s socio-economic structure. The revolutionaries implemented policies aimed at nationalizing industries, redistributing land, and improving social welfare programs, all of which aligned with socialist principles.
Alignment with the Soviet Union: Castro’s Cuba quickly established close ties with the Soviet Union, which provided economic, military, and political support to the revolutionary government. This alliance was a significant factor in Cuba’s ability to withstand pressure from the United States and other Western powers.
Economic Support: The Soviet Union became Cuba’s primary trading partner, providing vital economic assistance to offset the effects of the US embargo and support the Cuban economy. This support included favorable trade agreements, financial aid, and technical assistance.
Military Assistance: In addition to economic aid, the Soviet Union supplied Cuba with military equipment, including weapons, aircraft, and personnel. This military support bolstered Cuba’s defenses and deterred potential threats from external adversaries, particularly the United States.
Strategic Implications: The presence of a socialist state aligned with the Soviet Union just 90 miles off the coast of Florida had significant strategic implications for the United States and the broader Western Hemisphere. It challenged US hegemony in the region and raised concerns about the spread of communism in Latin America.
Cuban Missile Crisis: The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 brought the issue of Soviet influence in Cuba to the forefront of international attention. The discovery of Soviet ballistic missiles in Cuba triggered a tense standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war.
Diplomatic Fallout: The Cuban Revolution and Cuba’s alignment with the Soviet Union led to a breakdown in diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States. The United States imposed a comprehensive economic embargo on Cuba in response to Castro’s nationalization of American-owned assets and alignment with the Soviet bloc.
Regional Impact: Cuba’s revolution and its alliance with the Soviet Union had a ripple effect throughout Latin America, inspiring leftist movements and revolutionary struggles across the region. The Cuban model of armed insurrection and socialist transformation served as a beacon for anti-imperialist forces in Latin America and beyond.
Legacy of Soviet Influence: Despite the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Cuba’s ties to Russia (the successor state to the Soviet Union) endured, albeit to a lesser extent. The legacy of Soviet influence in Cuba remains evident in aspects of Cuban society, including political structures, economic relations, and cultural ties.
Popular Statements given on the Cuban Revolution
Fidel Castro: As the leader of the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro made numerous speeches rallying support for the revolutionary cause and articulating his vision for Cuba’s future. One of his most famous statements is, “History will absolve me,” which he uttered during his trial following the failed attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953. This phrase became emblematic of Castro’s defiance and determination to overthrow the Batista regime.
John F. Kennedy: The newly elected President of the United States at the time of the Cuban Revolution, John F. Kennedy, expressed concerns about the rise of communism in Cuba and its implications for US interests in the region. In a speech in April 1961, following the Bay of Pigs invasion, Kennedy declared, “We must face the fact that the United States is neither omnipotent nor omniscient — that we are only six percent of the world’s population — that we cannot impose our will upon the other ninety-four percent of mankind — that we cannot right every wrong or reverse each adversity — and that therefore there cannot be an American solution to every world problem.”
Nikita Khrushchev: The leader of the Soviet Union during the Cuban Revolution, Nikita Khrushchev, expressed support for the Cuban government and its socialist agenda. In a speech in 1960, Khrushchev famously declared, “We will bury you,” referring to the perceived superiority of the socialist bloc over capitalism. This statement underscored the ideological rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War era.
Che Guevara: A prominent revolutionary figure and key ally of Fidel Castro, Che Guevara played a central role in the Cuban Revolution and became an iconic symbol of anti-imperialism and socialist revolution. One of his notable statements is, “Let the world change you and you can change the world,” reflecting his belief in the power of individual action to effect social and political change.
Fulgencio Batista: The ousted dictator of Cuba, Fulgencio Batista, condemned the revolutionaries and accused them of seeking to destroy Cuba’s prosperity and stability. In a statement following his flight from Cuba in January 1959, Batista declared, “I go with the hope that you will not be betrayed, that you will maintain your position of dignity, honor, and dignity.”
Academic References on the Cuban Revolution
Books:
- Fontova, H. (2005). Fidel: Hollywood’s favorite tyrant. Regnery Publishing.
- Thomas, H. (1971). Cuba: The pursuit of freedom. Harper & Row.
- Pérez, L. A. (1988). Cuba between reform and revolution (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
- Sweig, J. E. (2004). Inside the Cuban revolution: Fidel Castro and the urban underground. Harvard University Press.
- Bonachea, R., & San Martín, M. (1993). The Cuban insurrection: 1952-1959. Transaction Publishers.
- Gott, R. (2005). Cuba: A new history. Yale University Press.
- Kornbluh, P. (1998). Bay of Pigs declassified: The secret CIA report on the invasion of Cuba. The New Press.
- Horne, G. (2007). The Cuban Revolution: A critical perspective (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
- Smith, W. L. (1994). The close of the Cuban revolution. Yale University Press.
- Sweig, J. E. (2003). Cuba: What everyone needs to know. Oxford University Press.
Journal Articles:
- Pérez, L. A. (1999). Cuba: The making of a revolution. Past & Present, 165(1), 193-224.
- LeoGrande, W. M. (2000). Cuba’s foreign policy in the Middle East: From idealism to pragmatism. Latin American Perspectives, 27(1), 45-68.
- Suchlicki, J. (2009). The Cuban Revolution and the United States. Journal of Latin American Studies, 41(2), 293-321.
- Wyss, M. D. (2016). Revolution and Counterrevolution in Cuba, 1933-1970. Latin American Research Review, 51(2), 267-283.
- Pérez-Stable, M. (1988). The Cuban revolution: Origins, course, and legacy. Oxford University Press on Demand.
- Thomas, H. (1971). Fidel Castro: The Cuban revolution. Grove Press.
- Gleijeses, P. (2002). Conflicting missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959-1976. Univ of North Carolina Press.
- Childs, M. W. (1978). The 26th of July Movement in Cuba. Journal of Latin American Studies, 10(1), 11-33.
- González, A. (1997). Fidel Castro, Che Guevara, and the Cuban revolution. Cuban Studies, 27(1), 69-85.
- Chomsky, A. (2003). A history of the Cuban Revolution. Wiley.