Militarism and Conquest: Nazi Germany's Foreign Policy

Overview
Nazi Germany’s foreign policy, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, played a central role in the expansionist objectives and the devastating conflicts that defined the Second World War. The period from 1933 to 1945, marked by the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, saw a profound transformation in Germany’s international relations. Nazi foreign policy was built on a mixture of ideological, territorial, and military objectives that aimed at overturning the Treaty of Versailles, asserting German dominance in Europe, and ultimately establishing a totalitarian regime that could impose its vision of racial purity and global supremacy. This article by Academic Block explores the key components of Nazi Germany's foreign policy, focusing on its foundational principles, strategies, and the sequence of events that led to the outbreak of World War II.
Key Events in Nazi Germany’s Foreign Policy (1936-1945)
The foreign policy of Nazi Germany, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, was characterized by aggressive expansionism and ideological fanaticism. This period witnessed significant shifts in Germany's international relations, culminating in the outbreak of World War II. The following table summarizes key events and actions in Nazi Germany's foreign policy, providing an overview before we dive into the specifics of the early years of Nazi rule.
The Ideological Foundations of Nazi Foreign Policy
The foreign policy of Nazi Germany was intricately tied to the ideological doctrines of National Socialism, as promoted by Adolf Hitler and his inner circle. One of the core elements of Nazi ideology was the concept of Lebensraum, or "living space," which called for the territorial expansion of Germany, primarily in Eastern Europe. This expansionist doctrine was based on the belief that the German people were superior and that they needed more land to ensure their survival and prosperity. Lebensraum was framed as a natural right of the "Aryan" race, which Nazi propaganda claimed to be the pinnacle of human civilization.
Another key ideological component was the notion of racial purity and the belief in a racial hierarchy. The Nazis argued that the "Aryan" race was inherently superior to others, particularly Jews, Slavs, and other ethnic groups. This racist ideology permeated every aspect of Nazi foreign policy and shaped their interactions with other nations. The establishment of a Greater German Reich, dominated by the "Aryan" race, was seen as both a geopolitical and a racial necessity.
The notion of overturning the Treaty of Versailles, which had been imposed on Germany after World War I, was also a major driving force behind Nazi foreign policy. Hitler and other Nazi leaders viewed the treaty as a humiliating agreement that unjustly punished Germany, and they were determined to restore Germany’s prestige and power on the global stage.
Early Years and Reassertion of German Power (1933-1939)
Upon assuming power in 1933, Adolf Hitler moved swiftly to rebuild Germany’s military capabilities, defy the restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles, and strengthen the country’s position in international politics. The early years of Nazi foreign policy were characterized by a series of aggressive moves designed to reassert Germany’s strength and assert its place in the international system.
One of the first significant actions was Germany’s withdrawal from the League of Nations in 1933. Hitler’s government rejected the post-World War I international order, which it viewed as weak and illegitimate. In the same year, the reintroduction of conscription and the expansion of the Wehrmacht (German military) marked a direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles. These moves were designed to strengthen Germany’s military power and provide the necessary foundation for future territorial expansion.
In 1935, Germany began reoccupying the Rhineland, an area that had been demilitarized under the Treaty of Versailles. This was a bold move that defied international conventions, yet it was met with little resistance. The reoccupation of the Rhineland was seen by Hitler as a key step toward reversing the effects of the Treaty of Versailles and asserting Germany's sovereignty. The lack of response from Britain and France, both of whom were focused on their own political and economic concerns, gave Hitler the confidence to pursue further expansionist policies.
The signing of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in 1935 was another important development. This agreement allowed Germany to expand its navy to a size that was proportionate to that of Britain, effectively permitting Germany to build a stronger military presence in the years to come. The agreement was seen by the Nazi regime as a diplomatic victory, as it signaled the normalization of relations with Britain and represented a tacit approval of Germany’s growing military power.
In 1936, Nazi Germany entered into a series of pacts with Italy and Japan, forming the Axis Powers. The Rome-Berlin Axis in particular marked the beginning of closer cooperation between Germany and Italy, with both nations sharing an interest in undermining the international order. The collaboration between the Axis Powers would later prove critical in the lead-up to World War II, as the three countries sought to challenge the Allied powers.
The Anschluss with Austria and the Munich Agreement (1938-1939)
The annexation of Austria, known as the Anschluss, was one of the most significant milestones in Nazi Germany’s foreign policy. In 1938, Hitler demanded the unification of Germany and Austria, arguing that it was an expression of the common heritage of the German-speaking peoples. The Austrian government, led by Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg, initially resisted, but under intense pressure from Nazi Germany, Austria ultimately ceded to German demands.
The Anschluss was a direct challenge to the post-World War I order and further demonstrated Hitler’s disregard for international agreements. The international response to the annexation was muted, as Germany’s aggressive actions continued to be met with appeasement by Britain and France. The Anschluss was not only a symbolic victory for Nazi Germany but also a strategic gain, as it provided Germany with greater resources, territory, and a strategic foothold in Central Europe.
The next major event in the lead-up to World War II was the Munich Agreement of 1938. This agreement, signed between Germany, Britain, France, and Italy, allowed Nazi Germany to annex the Sudetenland, a region of Czechoslovakia with a large ethnic German population. The Munich Agreement is often cited as a prime example of the policy of appeasement, which sought to avoid war by conceding to some of Hitler’s demands. In exchange for the Sudetenland, Hitler promised no further territorial expansion. However, this promise was not kept.
The Munich Agreement highlighted the inability of Britain and France to confront Germany’s growing power, as both nations were focused on avoiding another war. However, the deal ultimately failed to prevent further Nazi aggression, as Hitler’s ambitions continued to expand. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remaining parts of Czechoslovakia, effectively ending any illusions of peace in Europe.
The Outbreak of World War II and the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939)
On September 1, 1939, Nazi Germany invaded Poland, triggering the start of World War II. This invasion was the culmination of years of territorial expansion, driven by the objectives of Lebensraum and the desire to establish a Greater German Reich. The invasion of Poland was followed by the swift military defeat of the Polish forces, and within weeks, Germany and the Soviet Union, despite their ideological differences, reached a non-aggression pact known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.
The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, signed on August 23, 1939, was a diplomatic victory for Hitler, as it ensured that Germany would not face a two-front war when it invaded Poland. The pact secretly divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence, with Germany taking control of Western Poland and the Soviet Union occupying the eastern part. The agreement shocked the international community, as Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had previously been bitter ideological enemies. However, the pact allowed Germany to avoid a confrontation with the Soviet Union while it focused on its military campaigns in Western Europe.
The War Years and the Expansion of Nazi Influence (1940-1945)
Once World War II had begun, Nazi Germany pursued an aggressive campaign of conquest that sought to dominate Europe and establish German hegemony. The military victories of 1940 and 1941, including the invasion of France, the Low Countries, and the Balkans, expanded Germany’s territorial holdings, bringing much of Europe under Nazi control. Germany also pursued closer alliances with other fascist and authoritarian regimes, such as Italy, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, which joined the Axis Powers.
In 1941, Nazi Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, which marked a significant shift in its foreign policy objectives. The invasion was motivated by a desire for Lebensraum, as well as the ideological goal of destroying Bolshevism and establishing German dominance over Eastern Europe. However, the failure of Operation Barbarossa, combined with the entry of the United States into the war, led to a protracted conflict that eventually turned in favor of the Allies.
The war years also saw the systematic implementation of the Holocaust, as Nazi Germany sought to exterminate Jews, Roma, disabled individuals, and other groups deemed undesirable by the regime. This genocidal policy was a central aspect of Nazi foreign policy, as it was linked to the broader goal of racial purity and the creation of a homogeneous "Aryan" society.
Final Words
The foreign policy of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945 was defined by aggressive expansionism, ideological fanaticism, and a relentless pursuit of military dominance. Under Hitler’s leadership, Germany overturned the post-World War I international order, sought to establish a Greater German Reich, and waged a war that engulfed much of the world. Despite early successes, Nazi foreign policy ultimately led to Germany’s downfall, as the military and ideological overreach of the regime resulted in defeat. The legacy of Nazi Germany’s foreign policy remains a sobering reminder of the dangers of unchecked aggression, racial ideology, and totalitarianism. We greatly appreciate your thoughts and feedback! Your insights are essential in enhancing the quality of this article by the Academic Block. Thank you for reading!
This Article will answer your questions like:
Germany's foreign policy historically reflects a pursuit of territorial expansion, economic dominance, and political influence. It evolved significantly under Nazi rule, emphasizing Lebensraum (living space) and rearmament, ultimately leading to aggressive actions that precipitated World War II.
Nazi Germany's aggressive expansionism through territorial annexations and military invasions in Europe, along with alliances like the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and aggression towards neighboring countries, directly provoked the onset of World War II. Hitler's policies aimed to secure Lebensraum and establish dominance over Europe, disregarding international agreements.
Nazi Germany annexed Austria (Anschluss, 1938), Sudetenland (1938, Czechoslovakia), Memel (1939, Lithuania), and portions of Poland, Denmark, and Norway (1939-1940). Later, they occupied and annexed territories in France, Yugoslavia, Greece, and the Soviet Union, altering the European map significantly during World War II.
Hitler was the central figure in formulating and implementing Nazi Germany's foreign policy. His expansionist ambitions, outlined in Mein Kampf, focused on territorial expansion to secure resources and achieve racial dominance. His aggressive policies and disregard for international norms led directly to the destabilization of Europe and the outbreak of World War II.
Nazi Germany's aggressive foreign policy directly affected neighboring countries, leading to annexations, occupations, and military confrontations. Countries like Poland, Czechoslovakia, and France faced invasion and occupation, while others negotiated alliances or faced economic pressures. The impact was profound, reshaping geopolitical boundaries and alliances in Europe.
The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression agreement between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, allowed both powers to partition Poland and Eastern Europe, triggering World War II. It also enabled Hitler to focus on Western Europe initially while Stalin consolidated Soviet influence in Eastern Europe, until Operation Barbarossa in 1941.
Germany's foreign policy aimed at overturning the Treaty of Versailles, rearmament, and achieving Lebensraum. It involved diplomatic maneuvers to regain lost territories and establish dominance in Central Europe. Hitler's strategy included alliances, territorial expansions (Anschluss, Sudetenland), and preparing for eventual conflict, laying the groundwork for subsequent aggression.
Nazi Germany aimed to achieve Lebensraum (living space) for the German people through territorial expansion into Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. Their foreign policy objectives included economic self-sufficiency, racial dominance over perceived inferior races, and establishing a continental empire under German hegemony, ultimately leading to aggressive military campaigns and World War II.
Risk Involved in Nazi Germany’s Foreign Policy
Diplomatic Isolation and Alienation: From the outset, Hitler’s aggressive moves, such as withdrawing from the League of Nations and the Geneva Disarmament Conference in 1933, signaled a rejection of the international order established after World War I. This isolationist stance risked alienating Germany from potential allies and antagonizing other major powers.
Violation of International Treaties: The remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936 was a clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Treaties. This gamble paid off due to the lack of immediate military response from France and Britain. However, it significantly increased tensions in Europe and undermined international trust in Germany, laying the groundwork for future conflicts.
Military Overextension: Nazi Germany’s rapid rearmament and subsequent military campaigns, including the invasions of Poland, France, and the Soviet Union, involved substantial risks of overextending its military capabilities. Blitzkrieg tactics, while initially successful, relied on rapid, decisive victories and faced serious logistical challenges when sustained over large distances, as seen in the Soviet Union.
Strategic Miscalculations: The invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) in 1941 was a colossal strategic risk. Hitler underestimated the resilience and resourcefulness of the Soviet Union, the severity of the Russian winter, and the logistical challenges of such a vast campaign. The failure to secure a swift victory led to protracted warfare and significant German losses.
Economic Strain: The relentless pursuit of rearmament and war put enormous strain on Germany’s economy. The Nazi regime’s focus on military production and territorial expansion diverted resources from civilian needs and led to shortages, rationing, and eventual economic collapse. The wartime economy was unsustainable in the long term, contributing to Germany’s ultimate defeat.
Alienation of Potential Allies: While Germany formed alliances with Italy and Japan, its aggressive expansionism and ideological rigidity alienated potential allies. The Nazi-Soviet Pact was a temporary and pragmatic alliance that was ultimately unsustainable due to the ideological differences between the two regimes. The invasion of the Soviet Union ended this fragile partnership and opened up a massive Eastern Front.
Underestimation of Opponents: Throughout the war, Nazi Germany consistently underestimated the capabilities and resolve of its opponents. This was evident in the Battle of Britain, where the Luftwaffe failed to achieve air superiority, and in the Soviet Union, where initial successes were followed by devastating defeats. Underestimating the industrial and military potential of the Allies led to strategic blunders.
Ideological Obsession and War Crimes: The Nazi regime’s racial policies and obsession with establishing a racially pure empire led to the Holocaust and other war crimes. These actions not only drained resources and diverted attention from the war effort but also galvanized international opposition and ensured that Nazi Germany would be held accountable for its atrocities.
Resistance and Occupation Challenges: The occupation of conquered territories presented significant risks, including resistance movements and partisan warfare. In countries like Poland, Yugoslavia, and the Soviet Union, local resistance movements inflicted substantial casualties on German forces and disrupted supply lines, complicating the occupation and administration of these regions.
Domestic Political Instability: As the war dragged on and Germany faced increasing setbacks, domestic political instability grew. The failure to achieve quick victories and the immense human and material costs of the war eroded support for the Nazi regime. This instability was exacerbated by internal power struggles and the growing influence of the SS and other radical elements within the government.
Allied Strategic Bombing: The risk of Allied strategic bombing campaigns, which targeted German industrial centers, cities, and transportation networks, was significant. The bombing raids caused widespread destruction, reduced industrial output, and demoralized the civilian population, further weakening Germany’s war effort.
Global Conflict and Unprecedented Destruction: Hitler’s aggressive foreign policy ultimately led to World War II, involving numerous countries and resulting in unprecedented destruction and loss of life. The global nature of the conflict meant that Germany faced a coalition of powerful adversaries, including the United States, the Soviet Union, and the British Empire, which collectively had far greater resources and industrial capacity.
Collapse of the Third Reich: The culmination of these risks was the complete collapse of the Third Reich. As Allied forces closed in from both the east and west, Germany faced total military defeat, widespread destruction, and the eventual occupation and division of the country. Hitler’s suicide and the unconditional surrender of Germany in May 1945 marked the end of Nazi rule and the devastation of the nation.
Facts on Nazi Germany’s Foreign Policy
Treaty of Versailles Rejection: The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, imposed severe restrictions on Germany, including territorial losses, military limitations, and reparations. Hitler’s foreign policy was driven by a desire to dismantle this treaty and restore Germany’s power and prestige.
Withdrawal from International Organizations: In October 1933, shortly after Hitler became Chancellor, Germany withdrew from the League of Nations and the Geneva Disarmament Conference. This move signaled a rejection of the post-World War I international order and a commitment to pursuing an independent foreign policy.
Rearmament: One of Hitler’s first major initiatives was to secretly and then openly rearm Germany, in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles. The reintroduction of conscription in 1935 and the expansion of the Wehrmacht were key components of this policy.
Remilitarization of the Rhineland: In March 1936, Hitler ordered German troops to reoccupy the Rhineland, a region that had been demilitarized under the Treaty of Versailles. The move was a significant gamble, but the lack of response from France and Britain emboldened Hitler.
Anschluss with Austria: In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria in what is known as the Anschluss. This unification was largely welcomed by Austrians and was achieved without significant resistance. The annexation violated the Treaty of Versailles but was met with minimal international opposition.
Munich Agreement and the Sudetenland: In September 1938, the Munich Agreement allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland, a region of Czechoslovakia with a significant ethnic German population. Britain and France agreed to this concession in a failed attempt to appease Hitler and avoid war.
Occupation of Czechoslovakia: In March 1939, Hitler broke the Munich Agreement by occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia, creating the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. This action demonstrated Hitler’s broader ambitions and undermined the policy of appeasement.
Nazi-Soviet Pact: On August 23, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty that included secret protocols dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. This pact enabled Germany to invade Poland without fearing Soviet intervention.
Invasion of Poland: On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, using Blitzkrieg tactics to quickly overwhelm Polish forces. This invasion triggered Britain and France to declare war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II.
Early War Conquests: During the early years of World War II, Germany achieved a series of rapid victories. Notable conquests included the invasions of Denmark and Norway (April 1940), the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg (May 1940), and the swift defeat of France (June 1940).
Battle of Britain: In the summer and autumn of 1940, Germany attempted to gain air superiority over Britain in preparation for an invasion (Operation Sea Lion). The Battle of Britain was the first major defeat for the Nazis, as the Royal Air Force successfully repelled the Luftwaffe.
Operation Barbarossa: On June 22, 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. Initially successful, the campaign eventually stalled, leading to significant German losses and marking a turning point in the war.
The Holocaust: Nazi foreign policy was intertwined with its racial ideology. The Holocaust, which resulted in the systematic murder of six million Jews and millions of others, was a central aspect of Nazi policy. The genocide intensified with the invasion of the Soviet Union.
Axis Alliances: Germany formed strategic alliances with Italy and Japan, creating the Axis Powers. The Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) and the Tripartite Pact (1940) formalized these alliances, aimed at coordinating military efforts and dividing spheres of influence.
Turning Point Battles: Key defeats, such as the Battle of Stalingrad (1942-1943) and the Battle of El Alamein (1942), marked the turning point in the war. These losses halted German advances and began the long process of pushing Nazi forces back.
Collapse and Surrender: By 1944, Germany faced simultaneous offensives from the Allies in the west and the Soviets in the east. The D-Day invasion (June 6, 1944) established a Western Front, accelerating Germany’s defeat. Hitler’s suicide on April 30, 1945, and Germany’s unconditional surrender on May 8, 1945, ended the Nazi regime and World War II in Europe.
Academic References on Nazi Germany’s Foreign Policy
Books:
- Bullock, A. (1991). Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. New York: Harper Perennial.
- Evans, R. J. (2008). The Third Reich at War: 1939-1945. New York: Penguin Press.
- Fest, J. C. (1974). Hitler. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
- Gilbert, M. (2000). The Second World War: A Complete History. New York: Holt Paperbacks.
- Kershaw, I. (1998). Hitler: 1889-1936 Hubris. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
- Kershaw, I. (2000). Hitler: 1936-1945 Nemesis. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
- Kitchen, M. (2011). Nazi Germany at War. London: Longman.
- Overy, R. (2004). The Dictators: Hitler’s Germany, Stalin’s Russia. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
Journal Articles:
- Bell, P. M. H. (1997). Appeasement and German Foreign Policy. Contemporary European History, 6(1), 1-16.
- Browning, C. R. (1985). Nazi Resettlement Policy and the Search for a Solution to the Jewish Question, 1939-1941. German Studies Review, 8(3), 497-519.
- Erickson, J. (1985). Hitler’s Soviet Offensive: Germany’s Plan to Invade the Soviet Union, 1939-1941. Journal of Contemporary History, 20(2), 177-209.
- Evans, R. J. (2002). Coercion and Consent in Nazi Germany. Proceedings of the British Academy, 117, 53-81.
- Förster, J. (1987). Hitlers Entscheidung für den Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1940/41. Militärgeschichtliche Zeitschrift, 41(1), 29-61.
- Hildebrand, K. (1973). The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich. World Politics, 25(3), 370-385.