The Interwar Period

WW1 Interwar Period: Global Politics and Shifting Alliances

The Interwar Period was characterized by economic volatility, political upheaval and cultural change in the aftermath of World War I. It marked the emergence of totalitarian regimes, economic crisis like the Great Depression and unsuccessful attempts to preserve peace, ultimately resulting in the onset of World War II.
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Overview

The interwar period, spanning from 1919 to 1939, stands as one of the most transformative and tumultuous eras in modern history. This twenty-year span was characterized by significant political, social, and economic upheavals. It was a time marked by the consequences of World War I, the quest for stability and peace, the rise of totalitarian regimes, the Great Depression, and the complex web of international relations that ultimately led to World War II. This article by Academic Block will explore the multifaceted nature of the interwar period, examining its key events, ideologies, and impacts on the global stage.

The Aftermath of World War I

The Treaty of Versailles

The interwar period began in the shadow of World War I, a conflict that had ravaged Europe and reshaped the global order. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, was the cornerstone of the post-war settlement. This treaty imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including substantial territorial losses, military restrictions, and hefty reparations. The treaty aimed to prevent future conflicts but instead sowed the seeds of resentment and instability. Germany, feeling humiliated and economically strained, saw the rise of nationalist and revanchist sentiments that would later fuel the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party.

Political Reconfiguration in Europe

In the wake of the war, the political map of Europe was redrawn. The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires disintegrated, giving rise to new nation-states in Central and Eastern Europe. The Russian Revolution of 1917 had already led to the establishment of the Soviet Union by 1922, introducing a new communist regime. These changes created a volatile mix of nationalistic aspirations and ethnic tensions, contributing to a fragile geopolitical landscape.

Economic Turmoil and the Great Depression

Post-War Economic Challenges

The immediate post-war years were marked by economic difficulties as nations struggled to rebuild their economies. Europe, in particular, faced massive reconstruction costs and a disrupted industrial base. Inflation soared, and unemployment was rampant. The United States, having emerged as a major creditor and economic power, initially experienced prosperity but was not immune to the global economic instability.

The Wall Street Crash and Global Depression

The 1920s, often referred to as the "Roaring Twenties," saw a period of economic growth and cultural flourishing, particularly in the United States. However, this prosperity was built on shaky foundations. The stock market crash of 1929 triggered the Great Depression, a global economic crisis that lasted throughout the 1930s. Industrial production plummeted, international trade collapsed, and millions were left unemployed. The economic hardships of the Depression had profound social and political consequences, leading to widespread discontent and the rise of extremist ideologies.

The Rise of Totalitarian Regimes

Fascism and National Socialism

The economic and political instability of the interwar period created fertile ground for the rise of totalitarian regimes. In Italy, Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party seized power in 1922, promising to restore order and revive the economy through authoritarian rule. Mussolini's success inspired other authoritarian movements across Europe.

Germany, reeling from the effects of the Treaty of Versailles and the Great Depression, saw the meteoric rise of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party). By 1933, Hitler had become Chancellor of Germany and quickly established a totalitarian regime. The Nazis promoted a platform of extreme nationalism, anti-Semitism, and militarism, aiming to overturn the post-World War I order and expand German territory.

The Soviet Union Under Stalin

Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin had consolidated power by the late 1920s. Stalin's regime was marked by brutal purges, forced collectivization, and rapid industrialization. The Soviet Union pursued an aggressive foreign policy, seeking to spread communist ideology and counter the influence of capitalist nations. Stalin's rule was characterized by intense repression and a cult of personality, with millions suffering under his policies.

Authoritarianism in Asia and Latin America

The trend towards authoritarianism was not confined to Europe. In Asia, Japan pursued a militaristic and expansionist agenda. The invasion of Manchuria in 1931 marked the beginning of Japan's imperial ambitions, which would later lead to further conflicts in the Pacific. In Latin America, several countries experienced political instability and the rise of dictatorial regimes, driven by economic hardships and social unrest.

The Quest for Peace and International Cooperation

The League of Nations

In an effort to prevent future conflicts and promote international cooperation, the League of Nations was established in 1920. The League aimed to provide a platform for resolving disputes through diplomacy and collective security. However, it faced significant challenges from the outset. The absence of key powers, such as the United States, and the lack of enforcement mechanisms weakened the League's effectiveness. Despite its limitations, the League of Nations represented an early attempt at global governance and set the stage for future international organizations.

Disarmament Efforts and Treaties

Throughout the interwar period, various disarmament efforts were undertaken to reduce the risk of another devastating war. The Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922) resulted in agreements to limit naval armaments among major powers. The Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, signed by numerous countries, aimed to renounce war as an instrument of national policy. Despite these efforts, the drive towards rearmament in the 1930s, particularly by Germany and Japan, undermined these initiatives and highlighted the limitations of international agreements in the face of aggressive nationalism.

Cultural and Social Transformations

The Roaring Twenties and Cultural Flourishing

The 1920s witnessed significant cultural and social changes, particularly in the West. Known as the "Roaring Twenties," this decade was marked by economic prosperity, technological advancements, and cultural innovation. Jazz music, flapper fashion, and the rise of Hollywood cinema became emblematic of this vibrant period. The 1920s also saw the emergence of new literary and artistic movements, such as the Harlem Renaissance in the United States and surrealism in Europe, which challenged traditional norms and celebrated modernity.

The Impact of the Great Depression on Society

The onset of the Great Depression brought an abrupt end to the exuberance of the 1920s. The economic crisis had profound social impacts, leading to widespread poverty, homelessness, and a sense of despair. Governments struggled to provide relief, and many people turned to radical political movements in search of solutions. The hardships of the Depression also spurred social reforms and the development of welfare states, as seen in Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal in the United States.

Advances in Science and Technology

The interwar period was also a time of remarkable scientific and technological progress. The fields of physics and chemistry saw groundbreaking discoveries, including the development of quantum mechanics and advancements in nuclear physics. Technological innovations, such as the automobile, radio, and aviation, transformed everyday life and connected the world in new ways. These advances laid the groundwork for future developments and had lasting impacts on society.

The Road to World War II

Aggressive Expansion and Appeasement

The late 1930s witnessed a series of aggressive actions by totalitarian regimes that set the stage for World War II. In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia, defying the League of Nations and demonstrating the impotence of international mechanisms to check aggression. Germany, under Hitler, embarked on a policy of territorial expansion, beginning with the remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936, followed by the annexation of Austria in 1938 and the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia later that year.

The policy of appeasement, pursued by Britain and France, aimed to avoid conflict by making concessions to aggressive powers. The Munich Agreement of 1938, which permitted Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland, was seen as a high point of appeasement. However, these concessions failed to prevent further aggression and emboldened the totalitarian regimes.

The Spanish Civil War

The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) was a significant conflict during the interwar period that had broader implications for international politics. The war pitted the Republican government against the Nationalist forces led by General Francisco Franco. It became a proxy war for the broader ideological struggle between fascism and communism, with Germany and Italy supporting Franco, while the Soviet Union and international brigades backed the Republicans. The Spanish Civil War served as a precursor to World War II, demonstrating the deep ideological divisions and the willingness of totalitarian regimes to use military force to achieve their aims.

The Failure of Collective Security

The concept of collective security, central to the League of Nations, proved ineffective in the face of rising aggression. The League's inability to prevent conflicts such as the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, and the German expansion highlighted its weaknesses. By the late 1930s, it was clear that the international order established after World War I was failing to maintain peace and stability.

Final Words

The interwar period (1919-1939) was a time of profound transformation and turbulence. The aftermath of World War I, economic instability, the rise of totalitarian regimes, and the quest for international cooperation all shaped this crucial era. Despite efforts to prevent another global conflict, the period ultimately ended with the outbreak of World War II, a testament to the unresolved tensions and challenges of the time. The interwar years left a lasting legacy, influencing the political, economic, and social landscapes of the 20th century and beyond. Understanding this period is essential to comprehending the complexities of modern history and the forces that continue to shape our world. We would love to hear your thoughts in the comments below to help us make this article better. Your feedback is important to us. Thank you for Reading!

This Article will answer your questions like:

+ What is the interwar period? >

The interwar period refers to the time between World War I and World War II, characterized by significant political, social, and economic changes. It was marked by the instability of the post-war settlement, the rise of totalitarian regimes, and economic challenges like the Great Depression. The interwar years saw widespread disillusionment with traditional political structures and an attempt to create new international norms, leading to the eventual outbreak of World War II.

+ When was the interwar period? >

The interwar period is generally defined as the time between the end of World War I in 1918 and the beginning of World War II in 1939. This 21-year span was marked by profound political upheaval, economic instability, and significant cultural developments across Europe and beyond. The interwar years were a time of both hope and despair, as new ideologies emerged and traditional powers struggled to maintain their influence amid changing global dynamics.

+ How did the Treaty of Versailles impact Germany after World War I? >

The Treaty of Versailles imposed heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany after World War I, leading to widespread resentment and economic hardship. The treaty's terms, perceived as punitive, contributed to hyperinflation and social unrest in Germany during the 1920s. The resultant dissatisfaction fostered a sense of nationalism and the eventual rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, who promised to overturn the treaty and restore Germany's former glory.

+ What were the three most important events of the interwar years? >

The three most important events of the interwar years are the rise of totalitarian regimes, particularly in Germany and Italy; the stock market crash of 1929, which triggered the Great Depression; and the establishment and eventual failure of the League of Nations. These events fundamentally reshaped international relations, altered domestic policies, and set the stage for World War II, as nations grappled with economic and political instability.

+ What happened between 1918 and 1919? >

Between 1918 and 1919, significant political changes and social upheaval occurred in Europe following World War I. The end of the war saw the abdication of monarchs, the rise of revolutionary movements, and the establishment of new nations from the remnants of empires. Notably, the Treaty of Versailles was negotiated in 1919, reshaping borders and imposing harsh reparations on Germany, setting the stage for future conflicts and resentment.

+ How did totalitarian regimes rise to power in the interwar period? >

Totalitarian regimes rose to power in the interwar period due to a combination of economic turmoil, social unrest, and political instability. The Great Depression discredited existing democratic governments, leading citizens to seek strong leaders promising stability and national rejuvenation. Charismatic figures like Hitler and Mussolini exploited public discontent, using propaganda, intimidation, and violence to dismantle opposition and establish authoritarian rule, significantly altering the political landscape of Europe.

+ What role did the League of Nations play in the interwar period? >

The League of Nations was established in 1920 to promote peace and prevent future conflicts after World War I. It aimed to provide a platform for diplomacy and collective security among nations. However, its effectiveness was limited by the absence of major powers like the United States and its inability to enforce decisions. The League struggled to address rising aggression from totalitarian regimes, ultimately failing to prevent the outbreak of World War II.

+ How did the economic policies of the interwar period influence global trade? >

The economic policies of the interwar period, particularly protectionist measures and tariffs, significantly influenced global trade. The Great Depression prompted many nations to adopt isolationist policies, imposing high tariffs to protect domestic industries. This led to a sharp decline in international trade, exacerbating economic hardships and tensions among nations. The failure of these policies underscored the interdependence of global economies and highlighted the need for more cooperative trade practices in the future.

+ What were the cultural and social changes in Europe during the 1920s and 1930s? >

During the 1920s and 1930s, Europe experienced significant cultural and social changes, characterized by a rejection of traditional norms and an embrace of modernism. The arts flourished, with movements like surrealism and expressionism challenging conventional aesthetics. Socially, women gained greater rights and participation in public life, symbolized by fashion changes and increased employment. However, economic difficulties in the 1930s led to a rise in nationalism and reactionary movements, contrasting the earlier spirit of liberation.

+ What were the main causes of the Great Depression during the interwar period? >

The Great Depression during the interwar period was caused by a combination of factors, including the 1929 stock market crash, banking failures, and a decline in consumer spending. The adherence to gold standards and protectionist trade policies further exacerbated economic contraction. Additionally, agricultural overproduction and declining prices led to widespread poverty, unemployment, and social unrest, contributing to political instability and the rise of authoritarian regimes across Europe.

Major Events happend during the Interwar Period

Political Events

  1. Treaty of Versailles (1919): The Treaty of Versailles officially ended World War I. It imposed severe reparations and territorial losses on Germany, creating economic hardship and political instability that contributed to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party.
  2. Formation of the League of Nations (1920): The League of Nations was established with the goal of maintaining peace and preventing future wars through diplomacy and collective security. However, it struggled with enforcement and the absence of key powers like the United States.
  3. Rise of Fascism in Italy (1922): Benito Mussolini and his Fascist Party seized power in Italy, establishing a totalitarian regime that promoted nationalism, militarism, and authoritarianism.
  4. Establishment of the Soviet Union (1922): Following the Russian Revolution, the Soviet Union was officially established under communist rule. Joseph Stalin later consolidated power, leading to widespread purges and forced collectivization.
  5. Locarno Treaties (1925): These treaties aimed to normalize relations between Germany and its neighbors and stabilize post-war borders in Western Europe. They were seen as a step towards lasting peace but were ultimately undermined by later events.
  6. Great Depression (1929): The Wall Street Crash of 1929 triggered a global economic crisis, leading to widespread unemployment, poverty, and political instability. The economic hardship facilitated the rise of extremist ideologies and movements.

Economic Events

  1. Hyperinflation in Germany (1921-1923): Germany experienced hyperinflation, which decimated the savings of the middle class and contributed to social and political unrest. This economic crisis played a key role in undermining the Weimar Republic.
  2. New Deal (1933-1939): In response to the Great Depression, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt implemented the New Deal, a series of programs and reforms aimed at economic recovery and social welfare.

Social and Cultural Events

  1. The Roaring Twenties (1920s): The 1920s, particularly in the United States and Europe, were characterized by economic prosperity, cultural innovation, and social change. Jazz music, flapper fashion, and the rise of Hollywood cinema became cultural icons of this era.
  2. Harlem Renaissance (1920s): This cultural movement in the United States celebrated African American cultural expressions in literature, music, and art, contributing to the broader cultural dynamism of the decade.

Military and Diplomatic Events

  1. Japanese Invasion of Manchuria (1931): Japan’s invasion and subsequent occupation of Manchuria marked the beginning of its aggressive expansionist policies in Asia, which continued throughout the 1930s.
  2. Nazi Germany’s Reoccupation of the Rhineland (1936): Hitler’s reoccupation of the demilitarized Rhineland violated the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Treaties, marking a significant step in Germany’s aggressive expansion.
  3. Spanish Civil War (1936-1939): The Spanish Civil War saw the Nationalist forces, led by General Francisco Franco and supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, defeat the Republican forces. The war served as a prelude to World War II and highlighted the ideological divisions in Europe.
  4. Munich Agreement (1938): In an effort to avoid war, Britain and France pursued a policy of appeasement, allowing Nazi Germany to annex the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia. This agreement failed to prevent further aggression and is often criticized for enabling Hitler’s expansionist ambitions.
  5. Invasion of Poland (1939): Germany’s invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, marked the beginning of World War II. This event highlighted the failure of appeasement and the breakdown of the interwar international order.

Risk Involved During the Interwar Period

Political Risks

  1. Fragile Peace and Treaty of Versailles: The Treaty of Versailles, intended to ensure peace, imposed harsh penalties on Germany. The treaty’s punitive measures, including significant territorial losses, military restrictions, and reparations, created deep resentment and economic hardship in Germany. This fostered a sense of humiliation and victimization, which extremist groups, particularly the Nazi Party, exploited to gain support.
  2. Weakness of the League of Nations: The League of Nations was established to maintain peace and prevent future conflicts. However, it lacked enforcement power and the participation of key global powers like the United States. Its inability to effectively address and resolve conflicts, such as the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and the Italian invasion of Ethiopia, undermined its credibility and highlighted the risks associated with relying on weak international institutions for maintaining global order.
  3. Rise of Totalitarian Regimes: The interwar period saw the emergence of totalitarian regimes in several countries, including Italy, Germany, and the Soviet Union. These regimes pursued aggressive expansionist policies and built up their military capabilities, posing significant threats to regional and global stability. The ideological extremism of fascism, Nazism, and Stalinism led to widespread repression, human rights abuses, and ultimately, military aggression.

Economic Risks

  1. The Great Depression: The global economic crisis triggered by the Wall Street Crash of 1929 had devastating effects worldwide. The Great Depression led to massive unemployment, poverty, and social unrest. The economic hardship destabilized governments and economies, creating fertile ground for political extremism and radical movements. The inability of many governments to effectively address the economic crisis further eroded public confidence and increased political instability.
  2. Hyperinflation in Germany: In the early 1920s, Germany experienced hyperinflation, which wiped out the savings of the middle class and caused widespread economic chaos. The hyperinflation crisis eroded trust in the Weimar Republic and contributed to the political instability that allowed extremist parties to gain power. The economic turmoil heightened the risk of social upheaval and made the population more receptive to radical solutions offered by the Nazi Party.
  3. Global Trade Collapse: The Great Depression led to a collapse in global trade as countries adopted protectionist policies to protect their domestic economies. Tariffs and trade barriers exacerbated the economic downturn, deepening the crisis and prolonging recovery. The breakdown in international economic cooperation increased the risk of economic isolationism and hindered efforts to address the global economic crisis collectively.

Social Risks

  1. Social Unrest and Political Extremism: The economic hardships of the Great Depression led to widespread social unrest and dissatisfaction with existing political systems. In many countries, disillusionment with democracy and traditional political parties drove people towards extremist ideologies, including fascism, communism, and other radical movements. The rise of political extremism increased the risk of civil unrest, political violence, and the destabilization of democratic institutions.
  2. Ethnic and Nationalist Tensions: The redrawing of national borders and the creation of new states in the aftermath of World War I led to significant ethnic and nationalist tensions. Minority populations often found themselves in new states where they faced discrimination and marginalization. These tensions contributed to political instability and conflicts within and between states, increasing the risk of violence and secessionist movements.

Military Risks

  1. Militarization and Arms Race: The interwar period saw significant militarization and an arms race, particularly in totalitarian states. Germany, under Hitler, began a massive rearmament program in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. Japan pursued aggressive military expansion in Asia, while Italy sought to build an empire in Africa. The increase in military capabilities and aggressive posturing by these states heightened the risk of regional and global conflicts.
  2. Policy of Appeasement: The policy of appeasement, adopted by Britain and France in the 1930s, was intended to prevent another war by making concessions to aggressive powers like Germany and Italy. However, appeasement emboldened these regimes, allowing them to pursue their expansionist goals without facing immediate consequences. This increased the risk of larger conflicts as totalitarian states pushed the boundaries of international tolerance.

Ideological Risks

  1. Spread of Totalitarian Ideologies: The interwar period witnessed the spread of totalitarian ideologies, including fascism, Nazism, and communism. These ideologies promoted aggressive nationalism, militarism, and the suppression of dissent. The ideological conflicts between fascism and communism also played out in various proxy wars and political struggles, increasing the risk of internal and international conflicts.
  2. Suppression of Civil Liberties: Totalitarian regimes systematically suppressed civil liberties, freedom of speech, and political opposition. The pervasive state control and propaganda in these regimes created a climate of fear and repression, increasing the risk of human rights abuses and stifling any potential for peaceful political reform or opposition.

Facts about The Interwar Period

Political Developments

  1. Treaty of Versailles (1919): This treaty officially ended World War I, imposing heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany. It is often cited as a factor contributing to World War II due to the economic and political instability it caused in Germany.
  2. Formation of New States: The collapse of empires such as Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires led to the creation of new nation-states in Europe and the Middle East, including Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Poland.
  3. Rise of Totalitarian Regimes: The economic and political instability of the period saw the rise of totalitarian regimes, notably in Italy under Benito Mussolini (1922) and Germany under Adolf Hitler (1933).
  4. The Soviet Union: The Bolshevik Revolution led to the establishment of the Soviet Union in 1922, with Joseph Stalin rising to power by the late 1920s. Stalin’s regime was marked by widespread purges and forced collectivization.
  5. Spanish Civil War (1936-1939): This conflict was a precursor to World War II, with General Francisco Franco’s Nationalist forces, supported by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, eventually defeating the Republican forces.

Economic Events

  1. The Great Depression (1929-1939): The Wall Street Crash of 1929 triggered a global economic crisis that led to widespread unemployment, poverty, and political instability.
  2. Hyperinflation in Germany: In the early 1920s, Germany experienced hyperinflation, which decimated the savings of the middle class and contributed to political extremism.
  3. New Deal (1933-1939): In response to the Great Depression, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt implemented the New Deal, a series of programs and reforms aimed at economic recovery and social welfare.

International Relations

  1. League of Nations: Established in 1920 to promote international cooperation and peace, the League of Nations struggled to enforce its resolutions and prevent aggression by totalitarian regimes.
  2. Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922): Major naval powers agreed to limit naval armaments, reflecting early efforts at disarmament.
  3. Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928): This pact, signed by multiple countries, aimed to renounce war as an instrument of national policy. However, it lacked enforcement mechanisms.

Social and Cultural Changes

  1. Roaring Twenties: The 1920s, particularly in the United States, were marked by economic prosperity, cultural innovation, and social change, including the rise of jazz music, cinema, and the flapper movement.
  2. Women’s Suffrage: Many countries granted women the right to vote during this period, including the United States (1920) and the United Kingdom (1928).
  3. Harlem Renaissance: This cultural movement in the 1920s celebrated African American cultural expressions in literature, music, and art.

Technological and Scientific Advances

  1. Aviation: Charles Lindbergh’s solo transatlantic flight in 1927 and the development of commercial aviation transformed transportation.
  2. Radio and Cinema: The widespread adoption of radio and the rise of Hollywood cinema changed entertainment and communication.
  3. Scientific Discoveries: The period saw significant advancements in physics, including the development of quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity.

Prelude to World War II

  1. German Rearmament: Despite the Treaty of Versailles, Germany began rearming in the 1930s, culminating in the reoccupation of the Rhineland in 1936.
  2. Appeasement: The policy of appeasement, particularly the Munich Agreement in 1938, allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia in hopes of preventing further conflict, but ultimately failed.
  3. Invasion of Poland: The interwar period ended with Germany’s invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, leading to the outbreak of World War II.

Academic References on The Interwar Period

Books

  1. Carr, E. H. (1939). The Twenty Years’ Crisis, 1919-1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations. Harper & Row.
  2. Evans, R. J. (2003). The Coming of the Third Reich. Penguin Books.
  3. Keynes, J. M. (1920). The Economic Consequences of the Peace. Harcourt, Brace and Howe.
  4. Mazower, M. (1998). Dark Continent: Europe’s Twentieth Century. Vintage.
  5. McDonough, F. (1997). The Origins of the First and Second World Wars. Cambridge University Press.
  6. Paxton, R. O. (2004). The Anatomy of Fascism. Alfred A. Knopf.
  7. Remak, J. (1993). The Nazi Years: A Documentary History. Prentice Hall.
  8. Taylor, A. J. P. (1961). The Origins of the Second World War. Simon & Schuster.
  9. Tooze, A. (2006). The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy. Viking.
  10. Weitz, E. D. (2007). Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy. Princeton University Press.

Journal Articles

  1. Kershaw, I. (2008). Hitler’s power: The essential Hitler. Journal of Contemporary History, 43(1), 1-23. 
  2. Laqueur, W. (1976). The origins of Fascism. Journal of Contemporary History, 11(1), 47-68. 
  3. Maier, C. S. (1981). The two postwar eras and the conditions for stability in twentieth-century Western Europe. American Historical Review, 86(2), 327-352. 
  4. Tooze, A. (1998). Imagining national economies: Economic crisis and the rise of economic nationalism, 1918-1936. German History, 16(1), 1-23.

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